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THE 



Smith's Pocket Companion, 



CONTAINING 



USEFUL INFORMATION AND TABLES 



IRON AND STEEL, 
For the Use of Smiths and Steel Workers. 



By J. MARQUARDT, 

A Practical Smith. 



FIRST EDITION. 

DULU TH. MINN. 




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PREFACE. 



This volume is intended as a hand-book and 
guide for smiths and men working in the shop; I 
have tried to make the contents as simple as 
possible in order to enable those who have not 
had the chance of obtaining a good education, 
to master it with ease. 

The art how to work and turn iron into all 
required shapes and forms may be considered 
the profession; this can not be obtained by the 
wave of the hand. It takes years of practice 
and close attention to the trade, and by faith- 
fully studying theoretically as well as practically, 
a man may become a master of his trade. 

The smith's trade has been greatly neg- 
lected in modern technical literature. Almost 
all other professions have scores of works up to 
expensive folios, devoted to their elevation and 
education. 

The present being, therefore, probably the 
first English book on the subject, may not be as 
perfect as I could have wished, notwithstanding 
that great care has been bestowed upon it in 



selecting very carfully all the material from the 
manufacture of iron to the last table. 

In the production of this book I do not! 
claim the whole of its contents as being original. 
I make this acknowledgement, to those whose 
works I have consulted for information. From 
Haswell I have received valuable assistance; and 
with the consent of the Cresent Steel Co., Miller, 
Metcalf, and Parkin, I am enabled to give a good 
fundamental theory on steel. The large majority 
of problems contained in it, are the product oft 
study during my spare time. It is issued with 
the hope of making some contribution, however 
humble, to the true and permanent elevation offj 
my fellow craftesmen. 

I trust the work in this form may promote] 
this education and that a direct and wide influ-- 
ence for good may be obtained. 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Manufacture of Iron 1 

" Steel 8 

Condensed Suggestions for Steel Workers 12 

On Annealing 13 

On Heating to Forge 17 

On Temper 19 

Furnace 23 

Sketches of Furnace 24-25 

Process of Making Bessemer Steel 28 

Forging Fires 29-31 

Heating of Iron 33 

Welding and Working of Iron 35 

Dies and Tools 39 

Weight and Areas of Square and Round Iron ... 47 

Weight of Flat Rolled Iron 53 

Areas of Flat Rolled Iron 59 

Areas of Circles. 65 

Bearing Value of Pins 82 

Weights of Flat Rolled Metals 83 

Breaking Strain of Chains 83 

Weight of Cast Iron Balls 84 

Weight of Various Metals 85 

Weight of Substances 86 

Upset Screw Ends 88 

Bolts, Heads, Nut, Threads 82 

Sizes of Hot Pressed Nuts 90-91 

Spikes, Nails and Tacks 93-96 

Wrought Iron Pipes 96 

Explanation of Tables. ; 97-98 



Tensile and Crushing Strength 99-101 

Fulcrum and Lever 101 

Notes on Iron and Steel 103 

Mensuration 103 

Decimal Equivalents 106 

Angle Ring 107 

Alloys and Compositions 110 

Tempering 112 

Miscellaneous 120 

Tables of Wages and Board 124-130 



REMARKS. 



Page 46, fifth line below Figure XXXI, the word 
tick should read the. 

Page 29, sixth line above forge tires the word ma- 
terial should read natural. 

Page 85, " Copper .67 and Zinc .33" means that 
"Brass is composed of .67 parts of Copper and ,33 parts 
of Zinc. 



Manufacture of Iron. 

(From Haswell.) 

The foreign substances which iron contains 
mortify its essential properties. Carbon adds to 
its hardness, but destroys some of its quahties 
and produces cast iron or steel according to the 
proportion it contains. Sulphur renders it fus- 
ible, difficult to weld and brittle when heated or 
hot short." Phosphorus renders it ''cold 
short;" but may be present in the proportion of 
rooo~ ^^ ufoV without affecting injuriously its ten- 
acity. Antimony, arsenic, and copper have the 
same affect as sulphur, the last in a greater de- 
gree. 

THE PROCESS OF MAKING IRON. 

Cast iron varies much upon fuel used. A 
larger yield from the same furnace and a great 
economy in fuel are affected by the use of a hot 
blast. The greater heat thus produced causes 
the iron to combine with a larger percentage of 
foreign substances. Cast iron for purposes re- 
quiring great strength should be smelted with a 
cold blast. Pig iron, according to the propor- 
tion of carbon which it contains, is divided into 



Foundry iron and Forge iron, the latter adapteJ 
only to conversion into maleable iron, while thj 
former, containing the larger proportion of cai^ 
bon, can be used either for castings or ban; 
There are many varieties of cast iron, differini 
by almost insensible shades; the two principc 
divisions are gray, and white, so termed froi 
the color of their fracture. Their properties ai 
very different. Gray iron is softer and less brii 
tie than white. It is in a slight degree maleabl 
and flexible, and is not sonorous. It can h 
easily drilled in a lathe, and does not resist thl 
file. It has a brilliant fracture — gray or some 
times blue-gray color; the color is lighter tha 
the grain, becomes close, and its hardness ii 
creases at the same time. It melts at a lowe 
heat than the white iron and preserves its fluic' 
ity longer. The color of the fluid metal is re* 
and deeper in proportion as the heat is lower; 
does not adhere to the ladel, it fills the moulc 
well, contracts less and contains fewer cavitier 
than white iron; the edges of its castings ajl 
sharp, and the surface smooth and convex, 
medium bright and gray color, fracture sharp 1 
the touch and a close, compact texture indica 
a good quality of iron; a grain either very larg 
or small, a dull, earthy aspect, loose textur 
dissimilar crystals, mixed together indicate i 
ijiferior quality. Gray iron is used for m 
chinery and ordinary purposes where the piec' 
are to be bored or fitted. Its tenacity and sp 
cific gravity are diminished by annealing. I, 
mean specific gravity is 7.2. ! 

White iron is very brittle and sonorous, an 
it resists the file and chisel. It is susceptible 
light polish, the surface of its casting concav 



the fracture presents a silvery appearance gener- 
ally, fine grain and compact, sometimes radiat- 
ing or lamellar; when melted it is white and 
throws off a great many sparks, and its qualities 
are the reverse of those of the gray iron. It is 
therefore unsuitable for machinery purposes: its 
tenacity is increased and its specific gravity di- 
minished by annealing. Its mean specific grav- 
ity is 7.5. . 

Mottled iron is a mixed of white and gray; 
it has a spotted appearance, it flows well and 
with few sparks; its castings have a plain surface 
with edges slightly rounded. It is suitable for 
shot and shells. A fine mottled iron is the only 
kind suitable for castings which require great 
strength, such as beams, centers, cylinders and 
cannon. Besides these general divisions, the 
different varieties of pig iron are more particularly 
distinguished by numbers, according to their re- 
lative hardness. 

Number one is the softest iron, possessing in 
the highest degree the qualities belonging to 
gray iron. It has not much strength, but on ac- 
count of its fluidity when melted and of its mix- 
ing advantageously with old or scrap iron and 
with the harder kinds of cast iron, it is of great 
use to foundries and commands the highest 
price. 

Number two is harder and closer grained, 
and stronger than number one. It has a gray 
color and considerable lustre. It is the character 
of iron most suitable for shells. 

Number three is still harder than number 
two. Its color is gray, but inclined to white. It 
is principally used for mixing with other kinds of 
iron. 



Number four is bright iron; number five 
mottled, and number six white, which is unfit for 
general use by itself. The qualities of these va- 
rious descriptions depend upon the proportion of 
carbon and upon the state it exists in the metal. 

In darker kinds of iron where the proportion 
is sometimes seven per cent., it exists partly in 
the state of graphite or plumbago, which makes 
the iron soft. 

In white iron the carbon is thoroughly com- 
bined with the metal as in steel. 

Cast iron frequently contains a proportion of 
foreign ingredients from the ore, such as earth on 
oxides of the other metals, and sometimes sul- 
phur and phosphorus, which are all injurious tq 
quality. 

Sulphur hardens the iron, and unless m a; 
very small proportion destroys its tenacity. Thesei 
foreign substances and also a portion of the car< 
bon are separated by melting the iron in contact 
with air; and soft iron is thus rendered hardei 
and stronger. 

The effect of remelting varies with nature 
of the iron and the character of ore from which i 
has been extracted; that from hard ore such astht 
magnetic oxides, undergoes less alteration thai 
that from the hematites; the latter being some 
times changed from number one to whites by ; 
single remelting in an air furnace. The colo 
and textures of cast iron depends greatly upoi 
the volume of the castings and rapidity of it 
cooling. A small casting which cools quickly i 
almost white, and the surface of large casting 
partakes more of the quality of white metal thai 
the interior. 

All cast iron expands at the moment of be 



coming solid and contracts in cooling; gray iron 
expands more and contracts less than other iron. 

The contraction is about ~ for gra}^ and 
strongly mottled iron, or }i of an inch per foot. 

Remeltmg iron improves its tenacity. 

Thus a mean of fourteen cases for two fu- 
sions gave: for first fusion, a tenacity of 29,284 
pounds; for second fusion, 33,790 pounds; for 
two cases: for first fusion, 15,129 pounds; for 
second fusion, 35,786 pounds. 

WROUGHT IRON. 

Wrought iron is made from the pig iron in a 
bloomery fire or in a puddling furnace — generally 
in the latter. 

The process consists in melting it and keep- 
ing it exposed to a great heat, constantly stirring 
the mass, bringing every part of it under the ac- 
tion of the flames until it loses its remaining car- 
bon, when it becomes malleable iron. When, 
however, it is desired to obtain iron of the best 
quality, the pig iron should be refined. 

REFINING. 

This operation deprives the iron of consid- 
erable portion of its carbon; it is effected in a 
blast furnace, where the iron is melted by means 
of charcoal or coke, and exposed for some time 
to the action of the geatheat; the metal is then 
run into a cast iron mould, by which it is formed 
into a large broad plate. As soon as the surface 
of the plate is chilled, cold water is poured on to 
render it brittle. 

The bloomery resembles a large forge fire, 
when charcoal and a strong blast are used; and 
the refined metal or pig iron after being broken 
into pieces of the proper size, is placed before 



6 

the blast, directly in contact with charcoal; asi 
the metal fuses, it falls into a cavity left for that 
purpose below the blast, for the bloomer works 
it into the shape of a ball, which he places again 
before the blast with fresh charcoal; this opera- 
tion is generally again repeated when the ball ij 
ready for the shingler. 

PUDDLING FURNACE. 

The puddling furnace is a reverberatory fur 
nace, where the flame of bituminous coal i« 
brought to act directly upon the metal. 

The metal is first melted; the puddler ther 
stirs it, exposing each portion in turn to the ac-: 
tion of the flame, and continues this as long asi 
he is able to work it. 

When it has lost its fluidity he forms it intc 
balls weighing from 80 to 100 pounds, which nex^ 
pass to the shingler. Shingling is performed ir 
a strong squeezer or under the trip hammer, Itit; 
object is to press out as perfectly as practicable 
the liquid cinders which the ball still contains; i 
also forms the ball into shape for the puddL 
rolls. A heavy hammer, weighing from six tc 
seven tons, effects this object most thoroughly 
but not as cheaply as the squeezer. 

The ball receives from fifteen to twent;! 
blows of that hammer, being turned from timet<i 
time as required; it is now termed a bloom, an< 
is ready to be rolled or hammered; or the ball i 
passed once to the squeezer, and is still ho 
enough to be passed through the puddle rollers. 

PUDDLE ROLLERS. 

By passing through different grooves in thes; 
rollers, the bloom is reduced to a rough bar fror 



:hree to four feet in length, its name converging 
in idea of its condition, which is rough and im- 
3erfect. 

PILING. 

To prepare rough bars for this operation, 
they are cut by a pair of shears into such lengths 
as are best adapted to the size of the finished bar 
required; the sheared bars are then piled one 
over the other, according to the volume required, 
when the pile is ready for balling. 

BALLING. 

This operation is performed in the balling 
furnace, which is similar to the puddling fur- 
nace, except that its bottomed hearth is made 
up from time to time with sand; it is used to 
give welding heat to the pile to prepare them for 
rolling. 

THE FINISHING ROLLERS. 

The balls are passed successively between 
rollers of various forms and dimentions, accord- 
ing to the shape of the finished bars required. 

The quality of the iron depends upon the 
description of pig iron used, the skill of the 
puddler and the absence of the diliterious sub- 
stances in the furnace. The strongest cast iron 
produces the strongest malleable iron, for many 
purposes, such as sheets for tinning, best boiler 
plates and bars for converting into steel; char- 
coal iron is used exclusively, and, generally, this 
kind of iron is to be relied upon for strength and 
toughness, with greater confidence than any 
other; though iron of superior quality is made 
from pigs made with other fuel and with the hot 
blast. Iron for gun barrels has been lately made 



8 

from anthracite hot blast pigs. Iron i-s improved 
in quahty by judicious working, reheating and 
hammering and roUing. Other things being 
equal, the best iron is that which has been 
wrought the most. 

STEEL. 

Steel is a compound of iron and carbon, in 
which the proportion of the latter is from 1 to 5" 
per cent and even less in some kinds. Steel iss 
distinguished from iron by its fine grain, and by, 
the action of diluted nitric acid, which leaves a 
black spot upon steel, and upon iron a lighten 
color in proportion to the carbon it contains. 

There are many varieties of steel, the prin- 
cipal of which are: 

Natural Steel — Obtained by reducing richii 
and pure descriptions of iron ore, with charcoal, 
and refining the cast iron so as to depreciate of 
a sufficient portion of carbon to bring it to a 
malleable state. It is used for files and other 
tools. 

Indian Steel — Termed Woots, is said to be 
natural steel; containing a small portion of other 
metals. 

Blistered steel, or steel of cementation, is 
prepared by the direct combination of iron and 
carbon; for this purpose the iron in bars is put 
in layers alternating with powdered charcoal; in 
a close furnace, and exposed for seven or eight 
days to a heat of about 9,000^ and then put to 
cool for a like period. 

The bars on being taken out, are covered 
with blisters, have acquired a brittle quality, and 
exhibit in the fracture a uniform of crystalline 
appearance. The degree of carbonization is 



varied according to the purposes for" which the 
steel is intended, and the best quahties of iron 
(Russian and Swedish) are used for the finest 
kind of steel. 

Tilted steel is made, from blistered steel 
moderately heated, and subjected to the action 
of a tilt-hammer, by which means its tenacity 
and density are increased. 

Shear steel is made from blistered or nat- 
ural steel, refined by piling thin bars into fagots 
which are brought to a welding heat in a rever- 
berating furnace and hammered or rolled again 
into bars. This operation is repeated several 
times to produce the finest kinds of steel, which 
are distinguished by the names of Half Shear, 
Single Shear, and Double Shear steel, or steel of 
1, 2, or 3 marks, according to the number of 
times it has been piled. 

Cast steel is made by breaking blistered 
steel into small pieces and melting it in close 
crucibles, from which it is poured into iron 
moulds; the ingot is then reduced to a bar by 
hammering or rolling. Cast steel is the best 
kind of steel, and best adapted for most pur- 
poses. It is known by a very fine, even, and 
close grain, and a silvery, homogeneous fracture. 
It is very brittle, and acquires extreme hardness, 
but IS difficult to weld without the use of a flux. 
The other kinds of steel have a similar appear- 
ance to cast steel, but the grain is coarser and 
less homogeneous. They are softer and less 
brittle and weld more readily. A fibrous or 
lamellar appearance in the fracture indicates an 
imperfect steel. A great toughness and elas- 
ticity, as well as hardness, is made by forging 
together ''steel and iron," forming the celebrated 



10 

Damask steel which is used for sword blades, 
springs, etc. The damask appearance of which 
is produced by a diluted acid which gives a 
black tint to the steel, while the iron remains 
white. 

Various fine steels or alloys of steel, plat- 
inum, rhodium and aluminum, have been made 
with a view to imitating the Damascus steel, 
woots, etc. ; and improving the fabrications of 
the finer kinds of surgical and other instruments. 

HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 

Upon these operations the quality of manu- 
factured steel in a great measure depends. 

Hardening is effected by heating the steel to 
a cherry red, and plunging it into cold water or 
some cooling solution; the degree of hardness 
depends upon the heat and rapidity of cooling, 
the steel is thus rendered so hard that it resists 
the hardest file, and it becomes at the same time 
very brittle. 

The degree of heat and the nature of the 
cooling medium must be chosen with reference 
to the quality of the steel and purposes for which 
it is intended. Cold water gives it greater hard- 
ness than oils and other fatty substances. Water, 
acids and salts render it the hardest at any rate. 

Tempering steel in its hardest state being 
too brittle for most purposes unless the tools are 
very heavy, as rock and granite tools or drills, 
on which no temper must be drawn. 

The requisite strength and elasticity are ob- 
tained by tempering and then drawing the 
temper by heating the hardened steel to a certain i; 
degree and then cooling it suddenly. 

The proper heat is usually obtained or as 



11 

::ertained by the color which the surface of the 
steel assumes from the film of oxides thus formed. 
The degree of heat to which these several colors 
::orrespond are as follows: 

At 430'' a very faint yellow ( Drills for hard 

At 450^" a pale straw color I substances. 

At 470'' full yellov; \ Shears, turning 

At 490^ brown color ( tools, etc. 

At 510" brown, white purple spots Hammers. 

At538« purple Punches, dies taps 

At 550" dark blue -Cold chisels. 

At 560" full blue, or sky blue Cutting tools, as cutlery. 

, , , ( Saws, springs. 

At 600" grayish bine, verging on black j swords. 

CASE HARDENING. 

This operation consists in converting the sur- 
face of wrought iron into steel by concentration 
for the purpose of adapting it to receive a polish 
or to bear friction, etc. This is done by heating 
iron to a cherry red in a close vessel in contact 
with carbonic materials and then plunging it into 
cold water. 

Bones, leather, hoofs and horns of animals 
are generally used for this purpose after having 
been burned or roasted so that they can be pow- 
dered or pulverized. Soot is also frequently 
used. 



CondensBd SuggBsfcions for SfcBBl WnrkBrs. 

(From Miller, Metcalf & Parkin.) 



ON ANNEALING. 

Owing to the fact that the opertion of rolhng 
or hammering steel makes it very hard, it is fre- 
quently necessary that the steel should be an- 
nealed before it can be conveniently cut into the; 
required shapes for tools. 

Annealing or softening is accomplished by 
heating steel to a red heat and then cooling very 
slowly, to prevent it from getting hard again. 

The higher the degree of heat, the more will! 
steel be softened, until the limit of softness is 
reached, when the steel is melted. 

It does not follow that the higher a piece of! 
steel is heated the softer it would be when cooled; 
this is proven by the fact that an ingot is always 
harder than a rolled or hammered bar made 
from it. 

Therefore, there is nothing gained by heat- 
ing a piece of steel hotter than good bright 
cherry red; on the contrary, a higher heat has 
several disadvantages. First, if carried too far, J 



13 

it may leave the steel actually harder than a good 
red heat would leave it. 

Second, if a scale is raised on the steel, this 
scale will be harsh, granular, oxide of iron, and 
will spoil the tools used to cut it. It often occurs 
that steel is scaled in this way, and then, because 
it does not cut well it is still customary to heat it 
again, and hotter still, to overcome the trouble, 
while the fact is, that the more this operation is 
repeated the harder the steel will work, because 
of the hard scale and the harsh grain under- 
neath. 

Third, a high scaling heat, continued for a 
little while, changes the structure of the steel, 
destroys its crystaline property, makes it brittle, 
liable to crack in hardening and impossible to re- 
fine. 

Again, it is common practice to put steel 
into a hot furnace at the close of a day's work 
and leave it there all night. 

This method gets the steel too hot, always 
raises a scale under it, and, worse than either, it 
leaves it soaking in the fire too long, and this is 
more injurious to the steel than any other opera- 
tion to which it can be subjected. A good illus- 
tration of the destruction of crystaline structure 
by long continued heating may be had by opera- 
ting on chilled cast iron. If a chill be heated red 
hot and removed from the fire as soon as it is hot 
it will, when cold, retain its peculiar crj'-staline 
structure; if now it be heated red hot, and left at 
a moderate red for several hours, in short, if it 
be treated as steel often is. and be left in the fur- 
nace over night, it will be found, when cold, to 
have a perfect amorphous structure, every trace 
of chill crystals will be gone, and the whole piece 



14 



1 



be non-crystaline gray cast iron. If this is thef 
effect upon coarse cast iron, what better is to b& 
expected from fine cast steel? i 

A piece of fine tap steel, after having been 
in a furnace over night, will act as follows: — It 
will be harsh in the lathe and spoil the cutting: 
tools. 

When hardened it will almost certainly} 
crack; if it does not crack it will have been a re- 
markably good steel to begin with. When the 
temper is drawn to the proper color and the tapi 
is put into use, the teeth will either crumble ofif, 
or crush down like so much lead. 

Upon breaking the tap, the grain will be^ 
coarse and the steel brittle. 

To anneal any piece of steel, heated red hot, 
heated uniformly and heated through, takings 
care not to let the ends and corners get too hot.^ 
As soon as it is hot, take it out of the fire, thed 
sooner the better, and cool it as slowly as^ 
possible. A good rule for heating is to heat att 
so low a red heat that when the piece is cold iti 
will still show the blue gloss of the oxide that! 
was put there by the hammer or rolls. 

Steel annealed in this way will cut very\ 
soft; it will harden very hard, without cracking,.: 
and when tempered it will be very strong, nicely 
refined and will hold a keen, strong edge. 

ON HEATING TO FORGE. 

Fully as much trouble and loss are caused 
by improper heating in the forge fire as in the 
tempering fire, although steel may be heated 
safely very hot for forging if it be done properly; 
but any ''high degree of heat," no matter howv 
uniform it may be, is unsafe for ''hardening." 



15 

The trouble in a forge-fire is usually ''un- 
even heat," and not too light heat. Suppose the 
piece to be forged has been put into a very hot 
fire, and forced as quickly as possible to a high 
yellow heat, so that it is almost to the scintil- 
lating point. If this be done, in a few minutes 
the outside will be quite soft and in nice condi- 
tion for forging, while the middle parts will be 
not more than red hot. The highly heated soft 
outside will have very little tenacity: that is to 
say, this part will be so far advanced toward 
fusion that the particles will slide easily over 
one another, while the less highly heated inside 
parts will be hard, possessed of high tenacity, 
and the particles will not slide so easily over 
each other. 

Now let the piece be placed under the ham- 
mer and forged, and the result will be as shown 
in Figure 1. 

The soft outside will yield so much more 
readily than the hard inside that the outer par- 
ticles will be torn asunder, while the inside will 
remain sound and the piece will be pitched out 
and branded "burned." 

Suppose the case to be reversed and the in- 
side to be much hotter than the outside: that is, 
that the inside shall be in a state of semi-fusion, 
while the outside is hard and firm. Now let the 
piece be forged and we shall have the case as 
shown in Figure 2. The outside will be all 
sound and the whole piece will appear perfectly 
good until it is cropped, and then it is found to 
be hollow inside, and it is pitched out and 
branded ''burst." 

In either case, if the piece had been heated 
soft "all through" or if it had been only red hot 



16 



"all through" it 
sound and good. 



^ould have forged perfectly 



Figure 1. 



y 



=3 



Figure 2. 

If it be asked, why then is there ever any 
necessity for smiths to use a low heat in forging,, 
when a uniform high heat will do as well? 

We answer — In some cases a high heat is- 
more desirable to save heavy labor, but in every 
case where a fine steel is to be used for castingj 
purposes it must be borne in mind that very 
heavy forging refines the bars as they slowly 
cool, and if the smith heats such refined bars; 
until soft he raises the grain, makes them coarse, 
and he cannot get them fine again unless he has^ 
a very large steam-hammer at command and' 
knows how to use it well. 

In following the above hints there is a still 
greater danger to be avoided: that is incurred by 
letting the steel lie in the fire after it is properly 
heated. When the steel is hot through it should 
be taken from the fire immediately and forged! 
as quickly as possible. "Soaking" in the fire 
causes the steel to become "dry" and brittle, and 1 



17 

does it more injury than any bad practice known 
to the most experienced. 

ON HEATING.' 

Owing to varying instructions on a great 
many different labels, we find at times a good 
deal of misapprehension as to the best way to 
heat steel; in some cases this causes too much 
work for the smiths, and in other instances disas- 
ters follow the act of hardening. 

There are three distinct stages or times of 
heating: 

First, for forging. 

Second, for hardening. 

Third, for tempering. 

The first requisite for a good heat for forging 
is a clean fire and plenty of fuel, so that jets of 
hot air will not strike the corners of the piece; 
next, the fire should be regular, and give a good 
uniform heat to the whole part forged. It should 
be keen enough to heat the piece as rapidly as 
may be, and allow it to be thoroughly heated 
through, without being so fierce as to overheat 
the corners. 

Steel should not be left in the fire any longer 
than is necessary to heat it clear through, as 
"soaking" in the fire is very injurious; and on 
the other hand it is necessary that it should be 
hot through to prevent surface cracks, which are 
caused by the reduced cohesion of the overheated 
parts which overlie the center of an irregularly 
heated piece. 

By observing these precautions a piece of 
steel may always be heated safely, up to a bright 
yellow heat, when there is much forging to be 
done on it, and at this heat it will weld well. 

The best and most economical of welding 



18 

fluxes is clean, crude borax, which should be first, 
melted and then ground to a fine powder. Borax; 
prepared in this way will not froth on the surface 
of the steel, and one half the usual quantity will! 
do the work as well as the whole quantity un- 
melted. 

After the steel is properly heated, it should Ij 
be forged to shape as quickly as possible, and justj 
as the red heat is leaving the parts intended forr 
cutting edges, these parts should be refined by] 
rapid light blows, continued until the red disap--i 
pears. 

For the second stage of heating, for harden-- 
ing, great care should be practised; first, to pro-- 
tect the cutting edges and working parts fromi 
heating more rapidly than the body of the piece;; 
next, that the whole part to be hardened be^ 
heated uniformly through, without any part be-- 
coming visibly hotter than the other. A uniform i] 
heat as low as will give the required hardness, is^ 
the best for hardening. 

Bear in mind that for every variation, whichi 
is great enough to be seen, there will result a 
* 'variation in grain" which may be seen by break- 
ing the piece; and for every such variation in 
temperature, there is a very good chance for a 
crack to be seen. Many a costly tool is ruined 
by inattention to this point. 

The effect of ''too high heat" is to open the 
grain; to make the steel coarse. 

The effect of irregular heat is to cause irreg- 
ular grain, irregular strain and cracks. As soon 
as the piece is properly heated for hardening, it 
should be promptly and thoroughly quenched in 
plenty of the cooling medium, water, brine, or oil, 
as the case may be. 



11) 

An abundance of the cooling bath, to do the 
work quickly and uniformly all over, is very im- 
portant to good and safe work. 

To harden a large piece safely, a running 
stream should be used. Much of the uneven 
hardening is caused by the use of too small 
baths. 

For the third stages of heating, to temper, 
the first important requisite is again ' 'uniformity. " 
The next is time. The more slowly a piece is 
drawn to its temper, the better and safer is the 
operation. 

When expensive tools, such as taps, rose 
cutters, etc., are to be made, it is a wise precau- 
tion, and one easily taken, to try small pieces of 
the same steel at different temperatures, so as to 
find out how low a heat will give the required 
hardness. The lowest heat is the best for any 
steel; the test costs nothing, takes very little time 
and very often saves considerable losses. 

ON TEMPER. 

The word temper, as used by the steel maker, 
indicates the amount of carbon in steel; thus, 
steel of high temper is steel containing much car- 
bon; steel of low temper, is steel containing little 
carbon; steel of medium temper, is steel contain- 
ing carbon between these limits, etc., etc. Be- 
tween the highest and the lowest we have some 
twenty divisions, each representing a definite 
content of carbon. 

As the temper of steel can only be observed 
in the ingot, it is not necessary to the needs of 
the trade to attempt any description of the mode 
of observation, especially as this is purely a mat- 



20 

ter of education of the eye, only to be obtained 
by years of experience. 

Likewise, the quality of steel cannot be de- 
termined from the appearance of the fracture of 
a bar as it comes from the hands of the manufac- 
turer. 

This appearance is determined, in the main, 
by the heat at which the bar is finished, and 
therefore one end of a long bar (and especially 
of a hammered bar) may show a coarse, and the 
other end a fine grain, when the whole bar may 
be well suited for the purpose mtended. Two 
tools properly heated, forged and hardened (one 
from each end of such a bar) will, if broken, show 
fractures similar in color and grain. 

The act of "tempermg" steel is the act of 
giving to a piece of steel, after it has been 
shaped, the hardness necessary for the work it 
has to do. This is done by first hardening the 
piece, generally a good deal harder than is neces- 
sary, and then toughening it by slow heating 
and gradual softening until it is just right for 
work. 

A piece of steel properly tempered should 
always be finer in grain than the bar from which 
it is made. If it is necessary, in order to make 
the piece as hard as required, to heat it so hot 
that after being hardened it will be as coarse or 
coarser in grain than the bar, then the steel it- 
self is of too low temper for the desired work. 
In a case of this kind, the steel maker should at 
once be notified of the fact, and could immedi- 
ately correct the trouble by furnishing higher 
steel. 

Sometimes an effort is made to harden fine 
steel without removing (by grinding or other 



21 

method) the scale formed in roUing, hammering 
or anneahng. The result will generally be dis- 
appointing, as steel which would harden through 
such a coating would be of too high temper when 
the scale was removed. 

This surface scale is necessarily of irregular 
thickness and density, is oxide of iron — not steel 
— and therefore will not harden, and is to a cer- 
tain extent a bad conductor of heat. It should 
therefore be removed in every case to insure the 
best results. If a great degree of hardness is 
desired, as in the case of taps and most tools of 
a complicated form, and it is found that at a 
moderate heat the tools are too hard and are lia- 
ble to crack, the smith should first use a lower 
heat in order to save the tools already made, and 
then notify the steel maker that his steel is too 
high, so as to prevent a recurrence of the trouble. 
In all cases where steel is used in large quanti- 
ties for the same purpose, as in making of axes, 
springs, forks, etc., there is very little difficulty 
about temper, because, after one or two trials, 
the steelmaker learns what his customer requires, 
and can always furnish it to him. 

In large, general works, however, such as a 
rolling mill and nail factory, or large machine 
works, or large railroad shops, both the maker 
and worker of the steel labor under great disad- 
vantages from want of a mutual understanding. 

The steel maker receives his order and fills 
the sizes, of tempers best adapted to general 
work, and the smith generally tries to harden all 
tools at about the same heat. The steel maker 
is right, because he is afraid to make the steel 
too high or too low for fear it will not suit, so he 
gives an average adapted to the size of the bar. 



22 

The smith is right, because he is generally 
the most hurried and crowded man in the estab- 
lishment. He must forge a tap for this man, a 
cold nail knife for that one, and a lathe cutter for 
another, and so on; and each man is in a hurry. 

Under these circumstances he cannot be ex- 
pected to stop and test every piece of steel he 
uses, and find out exactly at what heat it will 
harden best and refine properly. He needs steel 
that will all harden properly at the same heat, 
and this he generally gets from the general prac- 
tice among steel makers of making each bar of a 
certain temper, according to its size. But if it 
should happen that he were caught with only one 
bar of say inch and a quarter octagon, and three 
men should come in a hurry, one for a tap, an- 
other for a punch, and another for a chilled rolled 
plug, he would find it very difficult to make one 
bar of steel answer for all of these purposes, even 
if it were of the very best quality. The chances 
are that he would make one good tool and two 
bad tools; and when the steel maker came around 
to inquire, he would find one friend and two ene- 
mies, and the smith puzzled and in doubt. 

There is a perfectly easy and simple way to 
avoid all of this trouble, and that is to write after 
each size the purpose for which it is wanted, as 
for instance: Track tools, smith tools, lathe tools, 
taps, dies, cold nail knives, cold nail dies, hot 
nails, hot or cold punches, shear knives, and so 
forth. This gives very little trouble in making 
the order, and it is the greatest relief to the steel 
maker. It is his delight to get hold of such an 
order, for he knows that when it is filled he will 
hardly ever hear a complaint. 

Every steel maker worthy of the name knows 



' 23 

exactly the temper to provide for any tool, or if 
it is a new case, one or two trials are enough to 
inform him, and as he should always have twenty 
odd tempers on hand, it is just as easy, and far 
more satisfactory to both parties, to have it made 
right as to have it made wrong. 

For these reasons we urge all persons to 
specify the work the steel is to do, then the smith 
can harden all tools at about the same heat, and 
he will not be annoyed by complaints, or hints 
that he does not do his work well. 

FURNACES. 

We present sketches of a cheap and handy 
furnace for use in a blacksmith's shop, adapted 
especially for heating steel, and more particularly 
for heating steel for hardening. The furnace is 
so simple that the sketches need no explanation; 
for binders, ten pieces of old rail about six feet 
long, with one end set in the ground, and the 
tops tied by ^ in. rods are all that is necessary, 
with a piece of iron about 3x^ in. running 
around near the top and set in flush with the 
bricks. The distinctive features of this furnace 
are the fire bed and a good damper on the stack. 
In an experience of many years we have found 
nothing better than the Tupper grate bar, with 
half inch openings. These bars set in as shown 
make a level, permanent bed, and give evenly dis- 
tributed supply of air to the feed. In such a fur- 
nace as this one set of bars will last for years and 
will remain level. 



24 




.J9 e J , 2 3 f 


5 e 


iuli.liliil 1 1 1 1 


-) 


Scale: ,4 = 1 foot. 




Stack: 15' to2o'hiqh. 





25 



SECT10N:A.B. 




HM 






H?4TW'Ff¥OT 




26 

While on the subject of grate bars we ma)] 
as well say that the satisfactory and safe working; 
of this furnace would be entirely defeated by an} 
attempt to use either square wrought iron bars ov\ 
ordinary cast iron bars. Such bars always warp i 
get pushed out of place, and allow a rush of aijij 
through at one place and no air at another. Thi;!; 
causes hot and cold places in the furnace anct 
produces uneven heating, which is the chief 
source of cracking in hardening; moreover, thei 
air rushing through the large holes will burn th(( 
steel. A bar must be used which will remain 
level and in its place, and the smaller and morn 
numerous the openings are, the better will be thci 
result. j 

Clean, hard coke is the only fuel for such i\ 
furnace and for such work. The furnace shoukil 
be filled full up to the fore plate; or better, a litt 
tie higher, with coke in pieces no larger than an 
ordinary man's fist, but the smaller the better. 

When it is used for heating, forging purr 
poses, the damper may be left high enough U 
run the furnace as hot as maybe required — if nee 
cessary a welding may be obtained. 

When used for hardening, the furnace should 
be got as hot as needed before the steel is put int< 
it; then when the steel is put in, the dampe,: 
should be dropped down tight. 

The door, which is 12 inches high and 2; 
inches wide, should be nicely balanced byalevei 
and weight, with a rod in a handy place so thai 
the operator can pull it up easily and turn ove 
his pieces from time to time, so as to get his heai 
perfectly uniform. 

In the clear gas of a coke fire, the whole im 
terior of a furnace can be seen easily, and ever 



27 

a] 5iece can be watched as it ought to De. Time, 
n^:are, wachfulness, and absolute uniformity of 
njieat, are the essentials necessary for success in 
oiiardening steel. Every large shop should have 
p,mch a furnace, and should have one man trained 
ii :o its use, to do the hardening and tempering for 
iii;he shop Such a furnace in the hands of a care- 
i( lul man in any railroad shop in the country would 
e 3ay for itself every year and save the man's 
ifivages besides. 

" The furnace will consume very little coke at 
"any time, and when not in use, with the damper 
^'down, it will stay hot a long time and waste the 
" 3oke but a trifle. 

, There is no more absurd or wasteful system 

fhan that of requiring a smith at his anvil to 
larden and temper his work. His fire is not fit 
to heat in, to begin with, and he never has time 
to do his work properly if it were. 

From such a furnace as is here described, we 
harden all sorts of tools: taps, small dies, large 
rolls, rotary shear knives, and shear knives as 
large as five feet long, which is the whole length 
of the furnace. 

The tempered steel which is the best, is that 
which is the finest in the grain and the strongest. 

The best way to test both grain and strength 
is to hammer out a piece to about ly^xyi in., a 
foot or so in length, and temper to a high blue or 
pigeon wing, and when cold to break it off in 
little pieces with a hand hammer. A little prac- 
tice will soon enable a man to determine, first, 
whether he heated his piece to just the right 
point. Next, when a little experience as to heat 
has been gained, he will know by the strength 



28 

and grain whether his steel is reaUy good 
whether it is "dry" and poor. 

Finally, The art of working steel can be ad 
quired by intelligent application. 

Some will never learn, and others seem to b 
imbued with the idea that twenty or thirty years 
practice must necessarily qualify them as experts 
In point of fact something new can be learnec 
every day, and he is wise who will lay aside pre 
judice and change his mind whenever occasio.) 
requires it. 

THE PROCESS OF MAKING BESSEMER STEEL \ 

The pig-iron is melted in a cupola, whe:? 
fusing it is let into a converter. The converter 
is tilted at a certain angle in order that the moJ 
ten iron can run into it. When it has taken thi 
required quantity, then the converter is swuna, 
up again into a horizontal position, and the corr; 
verting or blowing begins. For now a tremenr 
dous blast of air is forced up into the seethinji 
contents of the vessel through openings in it, suci 
a gust of wind as only a set of engines represent 
ing the united strength of 5,000 horse power caii 
produce. 

I must quote Mr. Bessemer's own descrip 
tion of the process. When the process ii 
brought into full activity small though powerful} 
jets oi air spring upwards through the fluicii 
mass. The air expanding in volume divides it' 
self into globules or bursts violently upwards. 

Every part of the apparatus trembles unde 
the violent agitation thus produced, a roarinj 
flame rushes from the mouth of the converte: 
and as the process advances changes its viola: 



:olor to orange and finally to a luminous white 
tianie. 

,( The sparks which at first were large like 

those of ordinary foundry iron change to small 

, hissing points and these gradually give way to 
specks of bluish light as the state of malleable 
iron is approached. After this mighty blowing 

■ has been going on for some time, the Spiegeleisen 
is added to the molten iron and the whole is 
mixed and combined thoroughly by means of the 
strong blast. 

''Manganese is used now instead of Spiegelei- 
sen." When converted enough the molten iron 
is poured into the dipper to which is added the 
Manganese, enough according to what per cent 
carboned steel is wanted, which mingles with 
the iron and then poured into moulds, what is 
called an ingot; which is now in fact Bessemer 
steel, ready to be rolled into any desired shape 
or plates, beams, angle iron, etc. 

Steel is merely iron treated with carbon in a 
peculiar way. 

Manganese is a mineral and metal of a dusky 
white or whitish gray color, very hard and diffi- 

. cult to fuse; it never occurs as a material pro- 
duction in a metallic state, the substance usually 
so called is an oxide of manganese but not pure. 
Manganese is largely imported from France, 
Spain and Portugal. There is some in this 
country, the largest mine of which is in Virginia. 

FORGE FIRES. 

The forge fire is one of the most important 
features in the blacksmith's trade; and therefore 
more attention should be paid to the forges and 
the building of forging fires, as is usually done, 
for if it be true that disasters in welding are in 



30 I 

most instances due to improper tires and heating, 
then it is clear that the fires employed for doing 
the heating must be responsible in some means 
for failure in the final process. That many of 
them as used by the blacksmiths are entirely 
unfit for the purpose is so well understood as to 
"go without saying." Their greatest evil is thati 
they are too small. They should be large enough 
to hold enough fuel that the piece under treat- 
ment is well covered with fuel; and the piece; 
will get an even heat. 




FIG. III. 

An open fire, as shown in Figure III, is in very/ 
general use, and where it is large enough good! 
results are obtained by giving the piece underr, 
treatment sufficient fuel and time to "take" the^ 
heat throughout its mass while turning and mov- 
ing it in the fire from time to time to give it ai 
uniform heat. 




FIG. IV. 

But if the fire is too small, as shown in Figure 
IV, where the coal supports are too low on the 



31 

forge, and therefore cannot hold coke enough 
between them to protect a piece under treatment 
from the blast and slack; in such a fire bad re- 
sults will follow. 

For the smith is tempted, and in fact is obliged 
to, use the blast immoderately to supplement the 
inadequate power of the fuel, and a dirty heat is 
the result. The smith puzzled and a poor job 
done, which will of course not contribute to the 
blacksmith's credit. 




FIG. V. 

The best fire made for heavy work is the 
hollow, as shown in Figure V. 

This fire is built by cutting planks accord- 
ing to the length the fire is wanted; put one on 
each side, as wide apart as required for the work 
intended, cover the top with another plank, then 
place damp coal around and over the planks, 
tamp them down as well as you can. The wall 
should be at least one foot thick. The thicker 
the wall the longer the fire will stand. Build 
the fire between the planks. By the time the 
planks are burned out the walls are charred 
enough to be ready for work. Fill up with hard 
coke before placing the iron in for heating. 

This fire is in use in most all prominent 
railroad shops, and gives the best of satisfaction. 



32 
TOOL SMITH'S FIRES. 

The tool smith's fire should be built 
large enough so as to hold sufficient fuel as not 
to allow any jets of hot blast strike the tools and 
subject the edges of tools to be burned. 

An open fire, as shown in figure III. forget 
fire, is used with good results, if well supplied. 
with fuel. 

A decided improvement in regard to tool 
fires is shown in Figure VI. 

A method of enclosing a fire, as in Figuree 
VI., meeting nearly all requirements. It is prac 
tically a small furnace, built upon a forge, itse 
length and arrangement of blast being such asi 




will permit of handling of long taps, reamers, 
shears, etc., and will stand a long time, and save 
building a new fire every morning. The fuel! 
used is charcoal or coke, according to the nature 
of the work. 

The hollow fires, as illustrated above, con- 
sume less coal than open fires and heat quicker 
and more thoroughly, because the heat is con- 



33 

ined. They require less blast; a decided fea- 
;ure, while the work of handling steel is easier 
;or the smith. 

Sketches of cheap and handy furnace, see 
condensed suggestions for steel workers. 

HEATING OF IRON. 

Not every smith can make a good clean 
heat for welding, therefore it is very important 
that every smith should make himself thorough- 
ly acquainted with this factor in the trade. A 
man may be ever so clever with the hammer but 
f he can not make a good heat he is no good 
behind the anvil. 

To work a clean fire, *'and keep it clean," is 
what counts through the day, and is easy on a 
man. Always keep your fire well supplied with 
fuel, and never leave it run down or burn low; as 
soon as the fire becomes low then you have to 
follow with the iron also, and you get amongst 
slack and ashes, and that is just what you do not 
want. 

When Ui^king heat for welding give your 
iron time to soak well, have a good supply of 
coke and have the iron in the center of the fire. 
(Do not get in the habit of rolling the iron in the 
fire too much, only enough to get an even heat). 
When well soaked, increase the blast as the heat 
comes up. (Too long waiting with the blast is 
not good, because too much of the oxide gathers 
on the surface.) Put a hard blast on a few mo- 
ments before the heat is done, in order to blow 
all the dirt off and bring the surface to a melting 
state. 

The art and knowledge how to work and turn 
the iron into the desired shape and form may be 
considered the trade or profession. 



34 




FIG. VII. 




FIG. VIII. 




FIG. IX. 




FIG X. 




FIG. XL 



35 




FIG. XII. 




FIG. XIII 

The blacksmith trade is different and unlike 
om all other trades. First, it requires physical 
:rength to perform the work; and, second, the 
ork is so complex in its nature that it takes 
long time and lots of experience to become a 
laster in it. Therefore the young beginner 
lould pay close attention to the workmanship 
[ the iron trade, and faithfully study theoreti- 
ally as well as practically. 

Theory and practice combined in one person 
ill make a thorough tradesman. 

WORKING AND WELDING OF IRON. 

In preparing the iron for welding it should be 
pset heavy enough before scarfed that when it 

put together and worked down to the size of 
le bar, that it is perfectly solid and show no 
:arf or marks in the weld and be full sized with 
le bar. 

Welds are of various kinds. Figure VII is a 

Dmmon lap-weld, and does for any ordinary 

ork. The V weld is made where great strength 

required, as on crank shafts, rudder posts. 



36 



car axles, etc. Figure VIII show how the bars- 
are scarfed and prepared before set. The set-t 
ting is generally done in the fire. The bars are 
pufinto the fire as shown in figure VIII, left i 
little apart, and when the heat is coming i^ip sof I 
enough that the iron becomes cohesive; then thd 
bars are struck together with a dolly bar whici 
is especially made for such purposes. Whei 
enough upset it shows as in figure IX; when tho 
heat is ready take it under the steam hammc; 
and work it down; have the right sized swedg 
at hand, and also round it up under the hammeri 

In big shops the swedges are generally i: 
the die of the steam hammer. 

In welding very heavy shafts, welds ar 
made quite often as shown in figures X. and XI 
Backset the outside or cut it down to assure 
solid weld in the center. For the convenience 
of setting the shaft straight a hole is punchc 
into the center and a pin is inserted to hold it i 
its place. When heat is ready, operate the sami 
as in the first explanation. 

In welding mill shafts where a steady straii 
is on the shaft without a jerk, welds are moe 
genreally set blunt or on a straight cut, as show 
in figures XII. and XIII. When upset enougj 
go through same performance as before. ' 




FIGS. XIV. AND XV. 



37 

Jump welds, where one bar is jumped on to 
another one on a right angle, the weld is prepared 
as shown in figure XV. The piece jumped on 
should have a good scarf in order to fill up prop- 
erly, and to catch it well with the filler. 

Heat may be made on each piece in a sepa- 
rate fire, or in one fire if the fire is big enough. 
When heat is made the piece which is jumped 
on should have as soft a heat as the iron will 
stand without losing any of its scarf. When 
heat is ready, and set together, it requires two 
smiths and four helpers (in heavy work) in order 
to work the weld successfully. When set, let 
two helpers strike on the upright piece (with as 
heavy hammers as they can handle) to set it 
down solid; have sand at hand and sand it well 
all around the weld, which will preserve the iron 
from getting dry and coarse, then each of the 
smiths take a fuller, one on each side, and fuller 
down the scarf smooth and level with the bar; 
throw it on the side, hammer the scarf smooth, 
so that the weld does not show; if too much 
stock left cut it away and then finish. When 
done it will show as in figure XIV. 

By working this kind of welds the men must 
get around lively, it must all be done before the 
heat gets off. .This kind of weld should always 
be done without making a second heat or a wash 
over it. 

Figure XVI shows a rudder frame in two sec- 
tions. To make these welds the two sections 
must be clamped together, which is done by 
taking four flat bars, or better, angle iron bars 
which are stronger, long enough to reach over 
the frame to hold it in its place. Make the weld 
No. 1 first. Prepare the weld as in figure XVII, 



38 




O I o o 



FIG. XVII. 

heat the dab in a separate fire and as soft as 
possible, in order that it well fills up the opening 
between the two ends; then take the other side 
in the same way. When No. 1 is finished the 
one clamp may be removed. Next in order is 
the weld No. 2, and take No. 3 to last; proceed 
in the same way as with No. 1. 



FIG. XVIII. 



39 




FIG. XIX. 

Figure XVIII. shows how to prepare a weld 
for an eye so as to appear if punched out of a 
sohd. When bent it should appear as in figure 
XIX. The hole should be made small enough 
for the drift to press the chip solid in the open- 
ing of the neck. 

If well done it will appear as nice and smooth 
as if punched out of a solid piece. 

DIES AND TOOLS. 

The modern technical work and taste for 
graceful form of manufactured articles as well 
I as durability, has been gradually forced upon us 
' through constant rivalry and competition. 

The manufacturer of the present day is 
obliged to do his work equal to, if not better, 
than the next man, or else his goods will be re- 
jected in the market on account of inferior work- 
manship. 

To keep apace with progress, the mechanic 
is forced in the same way to excel his fellow- 
craftsmen, or he cannot hold his job. Now the 
question arises, how can the mechanic attain the 
desired skill to compete with or excel his rival. 
Simply b}^ studying and scheming. It cannot 
be obtained by hard work: one man may work 
hard at it, using files, chisels, etc., but has not 
the proper tool to finish the work with, and an- 



40 

other man works on the same kind of work, has 
the necessary tools to do the work with, and what 
is the result? The result is that the man who is 
working with tools gets his job done ahead of 
the other man, and his work looks as if done by 
a machine, although he may not be as good a 
mechanic as the other man, and also enjoy the 
praise of his employer and foreman. 

Therefore every smith should partly employ 




FIG XX. 



FIG. XXI. 



his time to study on tools according to his work. 



41 

It is impossible for a man to suggest universal 
tools. Tools vary as the work varies in differ- 
ent shops. 

My aim will not be to give you hundreds of 
worthless cuts in this issue which would be of 
no use, but an idea how tools can and should be 
made, as shown in the following cuts. 

To make dies a man should be provided 
with blocks, as manufactured by the steel manu- 
facturer especially for that purpose. The smith 
has to forge the block according to what work 
they are intended, but it is not his duty to sink 
them, that belongs to the machinist or die 
sinker, in order to retain the sharp edges and 
corners. The employer may think that the die 
becomes too expensive if the machinist has to 
make them, that they could be done quicker and 
cheaper by the smith; although it will be the 
case, but the die is not as good and you may 
safely say it is of no account, because it is im- 
possible to retain the edges and corners if the 
block is heated and the form pressed into it 
under the steam hammer. However there are 
some tools, such as swedges for round iron and 
collars, etc., which the smith may make himself, 
but not as a rule. 

Figure XX represents a swedge for the steam 
hammer; all swedges should be made with laps 
over the block to hold them in position. 

Figure XXI shows the lower half of the 
swedge in position. In large shops where shaft- 
ing and car axels are made, the swedges are in 
the dies of the steam hammer at from one to 
three swedges in one set of dies. 

A swedge for tapering iron should also be 



42 



made tapering according to the taper required. 

Figure XXII represents a hammer die for 

making the end of a connecting rod. This kind 

of die can be made in any shape or form re- 




FIG. XXII. 

quired; the hole on the side is used to drive th 
work out; there is no chance to drive it out fror 
the bottom as it sits in the anvil block of th 
steam hammer. 




FIG, XXIII. 



Figure XXIII represents the wedge fc 
driving it out. 



43 




FIG. XXIV. 



Figure XXIV represents the iron and the 
wedge in position ready for work. 



( 




FIG. XXV. 

Figure XXV represents the work done and 



44 



die. To work in this way and 
a solid is alwa3^s better and 



lifted out of the 
make it out of 
stronger, as if welded on. 

This kind of a tool is very much in use in 
blacksmiths' work, not merely for one job, but 
for a variety of work. It must of course be made 
according to the size of the work required; lor 
instance, to make a ring with a shank or a jaw^ 
with a shank to be welded unto a bar. 

Punch a hole into a die block and have the 
face of it even and not sink it. Spread the ends; 
of the work out long enough according to the 
size of the ring or jaw, and 
quired. The neck of such 
stronger and looks better, and is easier done.; 
All tools for light work of this kind are made ol 
die blocks prepared by the smith and sunk by 
the machinist or die sinker as stated before 

Figure XXVI represents a tool of uneven 
surface. It may be used for making braces, ot 
such kind of work with a flat end, either round 



then bend as re- 
work is always: 




FIG. XXVI. 



FIG. XXVIII. 



or square and with a shank, as the case may be. 
All of this kind of work belongs to drop forging 
as shown in Figure XXVII. 

Figure XXVIII represents a kind of tool 
which is often used in railroad work for making 
coupling rods or link bars and even lighter work 
where there are many of a kind to make, as 
coupling rods, etc. There should be also a top 
tool, made the same as the bottom tool, and the 
eye pressed half way into each tool and the burr 
trimmed off. Such a tool must have two pins in 
order to exactly meet the cut of the tool, as 
shown in Figure XXVIII. 

All such tools with top and bottom are made 
on moulding principles, as if the work intended to 
be cut or pressed out by tools is pressed half 
way into the moulding sand, and then turn the 
piece over and press the other side into the 
moulding sand also, and you have a real view of 
both bottom and top tool. 



^ 



■~^^^^%n 



3>A 

— ^ 



FIG. XXIX. 

Figure XXIX shows how a piece of work 
would appear if it was pressed into the bottom 
tool only. It would be of double the thickness 
if a top tool were applied. In preparing the 
work for tools where there are holes to be 
pressed out, the hole should be punched before 
it is put into the tool, and always work the iron 
with a welding heat in the tool, in order to do 
perfectly sound work. 



46 




FIG. XXX. 

Figure XXX represents a tool with a hole 
in the center to form a boss on a bar, as shown 
in Figure XXXI. To prepare the iron for the 
tool, draw out the ends of a bar heavy enough 
to make the boss and leave a chunk stand in the 
center. Make a welding heat on it and place 
the chunk above the hole in the tool and drive 
it down with the steam hammer, and it will come 
out as shown in Figure XXXI. 



FIG. XXXI 

I do not deem it necessary to say anything 
on Tongs, Hammers and other shop tools. 
They are too well known by every smith, and he 
must make them as are required for holding the 
iron. Smiths should, of course, make tick tongs 
heavy enough that they do not break or come off 
while working at the steam hammer, else a man 
may be apt to get hurt. Never work under 
steam hammers without a span ring on the tongs. 



47 



WEIGHTS OF 

SQUARE AND ROUND WROUGHT IRON BARS 

At 4-80 Pounds Per Square Inch. 





SQUARE BARS. 


ROUND BARS. 


Diameter 


Weig^ht of 


Are in 


Weisclit of 


Area in 




1 lineal ft. 


Square 


1 lineal ft. 


Square 




of Iron. 


Inch. 


of Iron 


Inch. 


t 

1 6 


.013 


.0039 


.010 


.0031 


i 


.052 


.0156 


.041 


.0123 


A 


.117 


.0352 


.092 


0276 


1 


.208 


.0625 


.164 


.0491 


5 
1 6 


.326 


.0977 


.256 


.0761 


1 


.469 


.1406 


.368 


.1104 


re 


.638 


.1914 


.501 


.1503 


^ 


.833 


.2500 


.654 


.1963 


A 


l.n55 


.3164 


.828 


.2485 


t 


1.302 


.3906 


1.023 


.3068 


u 


1.576 


.4727 


1 .237 


.3712 


■i 


1.875 


.5625 


1.473 


.4418 


11 


2.201 


.6602 


1 .728 


.5185 


i 


2.252 


.7656 


2.004 


.6013 


1 5 
t 6 


2.930 


.8789 


2.301 


.6903 


1 inch 


3.333 


1.0000 


2.618 


.7854 


is 


3.763 


1.1289 


2.955 


.8866 


i 


4.219 


1.2656 


3313 


.9940 


^ 


4.701 


1.4102 


3 692 


1.1075 


i 


5 208 


1.5625 


4.091 


1.2272 


5 
16 


5 742 


1.7227 


4.510 


1.3530 


t 


6.302 


1 .8906 


4 950 


1.4849 


l\ 


6.888 


2.0664 


5.410 


1.6230 


i 


7 500 


2.2500 


5.890 


1.7671 


9 


8.138 


2.4414 


6.392 


1 9175 


5 

^ 


8 802 


2.6406 


6 913 


2.0739 


u- 


9.492 


2.8477 


7.455 


2.2365 


f 


10.21 


3.0625 


8.018 


2.4053 


H 


10.95 


3.2852 


8.601 


2.5802 


i 


11.72 


3 5156 


9.204 


2.7612 


}| 


12.51 


3.7539 


9.828 


2.9483 


2 inch 


13.33 


4.0000 


10.47 


3.1416 


I'e 


14.18 


4.2539 


11 14 


3.3410 


i 


15.05 


4.5756 


11.82 


3.5466 


1^6 


15.95 


4.7852 


12.53 


3.7583 



48 
SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONTINUED.) 





SQUARE BARS. 


ROUND BARS. 


Diameter 


Weight of 


Area in 


Weight of 


Area in 




llineiilft. 


S<inare 


1 lineal ft. 


Square 




of Iron. 


Inch. 


of Iron. 


Inch. 


i 


16.88 


5.0625 


13.25 


3.9761 


1% 


17.83 


5 3477 


14.00 


4.2000 


1 


18.80 


5.6406 


14.77 


4.4301 


re 


19.80 


5.9414 


15.55 


4.6664 


i 


20.83 


6.2500 


16.36 


4.9087 


A- 


21.89 


6.5664 


17.19 


5.1572 


f 


22.97 


6S906 


18.04 


5.4119 


H 


24 08 


7' 2227 


18.91 


5.6727 ; 


A 


25.21 


7.5625 


19.80 


5.9396 I 




26.37 


7.9102 


20.71 


62126 , 


Y 


27.55 


8.2656 


21.64 


6.4918 . 


{l 


28.76 


8.6289 


22.59 


6.7771 


3 inch 


30.00 


9.0000 


23.56 


7.0686 


1^6 


31.26 


9.3789 


24.55 


7,3662 


i 


32.55 


9.7656 


25 57 


7.6699 


3 
1 6 


33 87 


10.160 


26.60 


7 9798 


i 


35.21 


10 563 


27.65 


8.2958 


^ 


36.58 


10.973 


28.73 


8.6179 


f 


37.97 


11.391 


29.82 


8.9462 


/g 


39.39 


11.816 


30.94 


9.2806 


i 


40.83 


12.250 


32.07 


9.6211 


r^6 


42.30 


12.691 


33 23 


9.9678 


f 


43 80 


13.141 


34.40 


10.321 


u 


45 33 


13.598 


35 60 


10.680 


f 


46.88 


14 063 


36.82 


11.045 


II 


48.45 


14.535 


38 05 


11 416 


1 

8 


50.05 


15.016 


39.31 


11.793 


11 


51 68 


15 504 


40 59 


12.177 


4 inch 


53 33 


16.000 


41.89 


12.566 


1*6 


55.01 


16 504 


43.21 


12.962 


i 


56.72 


17016 


44 55 


13 364 


1=^6 


58 45 


17 535 


45 91 


13 772 


i 


60 21 


18.063 


47.29 


14.186 


1% 


61.99 


18.598 


48.69 


14.607 I 


f 


63.80 


19.141 


50.11 


15.033 ^ 


fe 


65,64 


19.691 


51.55 


15.466 



49 



WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diameter 


SQUARE BARS. 


ROUND BARS. 


Weight of 


Area in 


Weight of 


Area in 




1 lineal ft. 


S(]uare 
Inch. 


1 lineal ft. 


Sqnare 




of Iron. 
67.50 


of Iron. 


Inch. 


i 


20.250 


53.01 


15.904 


1% 


69.31) 


20 816 


54.50 


16.349 


t 


7i.30 


21.391 


56 00 


16.800 


1-6 


73.24 


21.973 


57.52 


17.257 


f 


75.21 


22.563 


59.07 


17.721 


Ig 


77.20 


23.160 


60.63 


18.190 


i 


79.22 


23.766 


62.22 


18.665 


II 


81.26 


24.379 


63.82 


19.147 


5 inch 


83.33 


25.000 


65.45 


19.635 


I'e 


85.43 


25.629 


67.10 


20.129 


i 


87.55 


26.266 


68.76 


20.629 


J% 


89.70 


26 910 


70 45 


21.135 


i 


91.88 


27.563 


72.16 


21.648 


Y% 


94.08 


28.223 


73.89 


22.166 


1 


96.30 


28.891 


75.64 


22.691 


7 
1 6 


98.55 


29.566 


77.40 


23.221 


: i 


100.8 


30.250 


79.19 


23.758 


i% 


103.1 


30.941 


81 00 


24 301 


f 


105.5 


31641 


82.83 


24.850 


u 


107.8 


32.348 


84 ()9 


25.406 


f 


110.2 


33.063 


86.56 


25.967 


Ji 


112.6 


33.785 


88.45 


26.535 


1 


115.1 


34.516 


90.36 


27.109 


k 


117.5 


35.254 


92.29 


27.688 


G iiieli 


120.0 


36.000 


94.25 


28.274 


1 

1 6 


122.5 


36.754 


96.22 


28.866 


-^ 


125.1 


37.516 


98.22 


29.465 


3 
16 


127.6 


38.285 


100.2 


30.069 


i 


130.2 


39.063 


102.3 


30 (580 


t'6 


132.8 


39 848 


104.3 


31.296 


t 


135 5 


40.641 


1064 


31.919 


/e 


138.1 


41 441 


108.5 


32.548 


i 


140.8 


42.250 


110.6 


33.183 


9 
16 


143.6 


43.066 


112.7 


33.824 


■ 1 


146.3 


43.891 


114.9 


34.472 


H 


149.1 


44.723 


117.1 


35.125 



50 

WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS- 

(CONTINUED ) 





SQUARE BARS. I 


ROUND BARS. 


Diameter 


Weight of 


Area in 


Weight of 


Area in 




1 lineal ft. 


Square 


1 lineal ft. 


Square 




Iron. 


Inch. 


of Iron. 


Inch. 


i 


151.9 


45.563 


119.3 


35.785 


B 


154.7 


46 410 


121.5 


36.450 


i 


157.6 


47.266 


123.7 


37.122 


rl 


100.4 


48.129 


126.0 


37.800 


7 inch 


163. 3 


49.000 


128.3 


38.485 


iV 


166.3 


49.879 


130.6 


39 175 


^ 


169.2 


50.766 


132.9 


39.871 


i% 


172.2 


51.660 


135.2 


40.574 


i 


175.2 


52.563 


137 6 


41.282 


1% 


178.2 


53 473 


140.0 


41.997 


1 


181.3 


54.391 


142.4 


42.718 


1^6 


184.4 


55.316 


144.8 


43.445 


i 


187.5 


56.250 


147.3 


44.179 


h 


190.6 


57.191 


149.7 


44.918 


f 


193 8 


58.141 


152.2 


45.664 


H 


197.0 


59.098 


154.7 


46415 


f 


200.2 


60.063 


157.2 


47.173 


11 


203.5 


61 035 


159.8 


47.937 


1 


206.7 


62.016 


162.4 


48.707 


fe 


210.0 


63 004 


164.9 


49.483 


8 inch. 


213.3 


64.000 


167.0 


50.265 


1*6 


216.7 


65.004 


170.2 


51.054 


i 


220.1 


66.016 


172.8 


51.849 


1% 


223.5 


67.035 


175.5 


52.649 


i 


226.9 


68 063 


178.2 


53 456 


T6- 


330.3 


69.098 


180.9 


54.269 


f 


233.8 


70.141 


183.6 


55.088 


/g 


237.3 


71.191 


186.4 


55.914 


i 


240.8 


72.250 


189 2 


56.745 


1^6 


244.4 


73.316 


191.9 


57.583 


f 


248.0 


74 391 


194.8 


58.426 


H 


251.6 


75.473 


197.6 


59.276 


f 


255 2 


76.563 


200.4 


60.132 


}i 


158 9 


77.660 


203.3 


60.994 


i 


262.6 


78.766 


206.2 


61.862 


11 


260.3 


79.879 


209.1 


62.737 



51 

WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diameter 


SQUARE BARS. 


ROUND BARS 


Weight of 


Area in 


Weight of 


Area in 




1 lineal ft. 


Square 


1 lineal ft. 


Square 




of Iron.' 


Inch. 


of Iron. 


Inches. 


9 inch 


270.0 


81.000 


212.1 


63.617 


i « 


273.8 


82.129 ' 


215 


64.504 


i 


277 6 


83 266 


218.0 


65.397 


1=^ 


281.4 


84.410 


221.0 


66.296 


i 


285.2 


85.563 


224.0 


67.201 


5 

i 6 


289 1 


86.723 


227,0 


68.112 


.a 


293.0 


87.891 


230.1 


69.029 


7 


290 9 


89.066 


233.2 


69.953 


i 


300.8 


90 250 


236 3 


70.882 


1% 


304.8 


91.441 


239.4 


71.818 


f 


308.8 


92 641 


242.5 


72.760 


1 1 
1 e 


312.8 


93.848 


245.7 


73.708 


f 


31G 9 


95.063 


248 9 


74 662 


13 
1 R 


321.0 


96.285 


252.1 


75.622 


h 


325.1 


97.516 


255.3 


76.589 


1 5 
1 G 


329.2 


98 754 


258.5 


77.561 


10 inch 


333.3 


100.00 


261.8 


78.540 


1 6 


337.5 


101.25 


265.1 


79.525 


i 


341.7 


102.52 


268.4 


80.516 


h 


346.0 


103.79 


271.7 


81.513 


i 


350.2 


105.06 


275.1 


82.516 


5 
1 R 


354.5 


106.35 


278.4 


83 525 


t 


358 8 


107.64 


281.8 


84.441 


Tr 


363.1 


108.94 


285.2 


85.562 


h 


367 5 


110.25 


288.6 


86.590 


i% 


371.9 


111.57 


292.1 


87.624 


A 


376.3 


112.89 


295.5 


88.664 


1 fi 


380.7 


114.22 


299.0 


89.710 


f 


385.2 


115.56 


302.5 


90 763 


M 


389.7 


116.91 


306.1 


91.821 


i 


394 2 


118 27 


309.6 


92.886 


1^ 


398.8 


119.63 


313.2 


93.956 


11 inch 


403.3 


121.00 


316.8 


95.033 


IR 


407.9 


122.38 


320.4 


96.116 


i 


412.6 


123.77 


324 


97.205 


x\ 


417.2 


125.16 


327.7 


98.301 



52 



WEIGHT OF SRUARE AND ROUND BARS, 

(CONTINUED.) 





SQUARE BARS. 


ROUND BARS. 1 


Diameter 


Weight of 


Area in 


Weight of 


Area ini 




1 lineal ft. 


Sqnare 


1 lineal ft. 


Square 




of Iron. 


Inch. 


of Iron. 


Inch. 


i 


421.9 


126 56 


331.3 


99.402 


is 


42G6 


127.97 


335.0 


100.51 


' i 


431.3 


129.39 


338.7 


101.62 


/e 


43G.1 


130.82 


342.5 


102.74 


i 


440.8 


132.25 


346.2 


103.87 


1% 


445 G 


133 69 


350 


105.00 


f 


450.5 


135.14 


353.8 


106.14 1 


H 


455.3 


136.60 


357.6 


107.28 1 


i 


400. 2 


138.06 


361.4 


108.43 


{% 


405,1 


139.54 


365.3 


109.59 


1 


470.1 


141.02 


369.2 


110.75 


il 


475.0 


142.50 


373.1 


111.92 ! 


12 inch 


480.0 


144 00 


376.9 


113.09 1 













53 










WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON 








PER 


LINEAL 


FOOT 


. 




For Thick 


ness from le \n to 2 In 


. and Widths 


■ 




fro 


m 1 in 


. to 12^4 In, 








Iron weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. 




iJ 
i.i 

h 


1 

.208 


u 


u 


If 


2 


2i 


2i 


2f 


12 


.260 


.313 


.365 


.417 


.469 


.521 


.573 


2.50 


.417 


.521 


.625 


.729 


.833 


.938 


1.04 


1.15 


5.00 


f 


.625 


.781 


.938 


1.09 


1.25 


1.41 


1.56 


1.72 


7.50 


.833 


1.04 


1.25 


1.46 


1 67 


1.88 


2.08 


2.29 


10 00 


1^6 


1.04 


1.30 


1.56 


1.82 


2.08 


2.34 


2.60 


2.86 


12.50 


t 


1.25 


1.56 


1.88 


2.19 


2.50 


2.81 


3.13 


3.44 


15.00 


-e 


1.46 


1.82 


2.19 


2.55 


2.92 


3.28 


3 65 


4.01 


17.50 


i 


1.67 


2.08 


2.50 


2.92 


3.33 


3.75 


4.17 


4.58 


20.00 


^6 


1.88 


2.34 


2.81 


3.28 


3.75 


4.22 


4.69 


5.16 


22.50 


f 


2.08 


2.60 


3.13 


3.65 


4.17 


4^69 


5.21 


5.73 


25 00 


u 


2.29 


2.86 


3.44 


4.01 


4.58 


5.16 


5.73 


6.30 


27.50 


f 


2.50 


3.13 


3.75 


4.38 


5.00 


5.63 


6.25 


6.88 


30.00 


13 


2.71 


3.39 


4.06 


4.74 


5.42 


6.09 


6.77 


7,45 


32.50 


¥ 


2.92 


3.65 


4.38 


5.10 


5.83 


6.56 


7.29 


8.02 


35.00 


^1 


3.13 


3.91 


4.69 


5.4; 


6.25 


7.03 


7.81 


8.59 


37.50 


1 


3.33 


4.17 


5.00 


5.83 


6.67 


7.50 


8.33 


9.17 


40.00 


i/« 


3.54 


4.43 


5.31 


6.20 


7.08 


7.97 


8.85 


19.74 


42.50 


u 


3.75 


4.69 


5.63 


6.56 


7.50 


8.44 


9.38 


10.31 


45.00 


h% 


3.96 


4.95 


5.94 


6 93 


7.92 


8.91 


9.90 


10.89 


47.50 


u 


4.17 


5.21 


6 25 


7.29 


8 33 


9 38 


10.42 


11.46 


50.00 


ll^6 


4.37 


5.47 


6.56 


7.66 


8.75 


9.84 


10.94 


12.03 


52.50 


11 


4.58 


5.73 


6.88 


8.02 


9.17 


10.31 


11.46 


12.60 


55.00 


l/« 


4.79 


5.99 


7.19 


8.39 


9.58 


10.78 


11.98 


13.18 


57.50 


u 


5.00 


fi25 


7.50 


8.75 


10.00 


11.25 


12.50 


13.75 


60.00 


ll^« 


5.21 


6.51 


7.81 


9.11 


10.42 


11.72 


13.02 


14.32 


62.50 


u 


5.42 


6.77 


8.13 


9.48 


10.83 


12.19 


13 54 


14.90 


65.00 


lU 


5.63 


7.03 


8.44 


9.84 


11.25 


12.66 


14.06 


15.47 


67.50 


If 


5.83 


7.29 


8.75 


10.21 


11.67 


13.13 


14.58 


16.04 


70.00 


111 


6.04 


7.55 


9.06 


10.57 


12.08 


13.59 


15.10 


16.61 


72.50 


u 


6.25 


7.81 


9.38 


10.94 


12.50 


14.06 


15.63 


17.19 


75.00 


11? 


6.46 


8.07 


9.69 


11.30 


12.92 


14.53 


16.15 


17.76 


77.50 


2 


6.67 


8.33 


10.00 


11.67 


13.33 


15.00 


16.67 


18 33 


80.00 











54 










WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON | 






PER 


LINEAL FOOT 












(CONTINUED. 


) 




1 


i i 
1.1 

^.2 


3 


3i 


3i 


3f 


4 


4i 
.885 


4i 
.938 


4f 
990 


1 


IV 


.625 


.677 


.729 


.781 


.833 


1 6 

i 


1.25 


1.35 


1.46 


1.56 


1.67 


1.77 


1.88 


1.98 


i 


h 


1.88 


2.03 


2 19 


2.34 


2.50 


2.66 


2.81 


2.97 


' 


i 


2.50 


2.71 


2.92 


3 13 


3.33 


3.54 


3.75 


3 96 


K 


1% 


3.13 


339 


3.65 


3.91 


4.17 


4.43 


4.69 


4.95 


V: 


\ 


3.75 


4.06 


4.38 


4.69 


5.00 


5.31 


5.63 


5.94 


V. 


h 


4.38 


4.74 


5.10 


5.47 


5.83 


6.20 


6.56 


6.93 


V. 


i 


5.00 


5.42 


5.83 


6.25 


6.67 


7.08 


7.50 


7.92 


2t'i 


i% 


5.63 


6.09 


6.56 


7.03 


7.50 


7.97 


8.44 


8.91 


2'^i 


f 


6.25 


6.77 


7.29 


7.81 


8.33 


8.85 


9.38 


9.90 


21!; 


16 


6.88 


7 45 


8.02 


8.59 


9.17 


9.74 


10 31 


10.89 


2^il 


f 


7.50 


8.13 


8.75 


9.38 


10.00 


10.63 


11.25 


11,88 


3(1' 


13 


8.13 


8.80 


9.48 


10.16 


10.83 


11.51 


12.19 


12.86 


3'.!: 


Y 


8.75 


9.48 


10.21 


10.94 


11.67 


12.40 


13.13 


13.85 


3,^!| 


M 


9.38 


10.16 


10.94 


11.72 


12,50 


13.28 


14.06 


14.84 


37, 


1 


10.00 


10.83 


11.67 


12.50 


13.33 


14.17 


15.00 


15.83 


4(li 


ll'e 


10.63 


11.51 


12.40 


13.28 


14.17 


15 05 


15.94 


16.82 


4S 


li 


11.25 


12.19 


13.13 


14.06 


15.00 


15.94 


16 88 


17.81 


4(1 


h=*6 


11.88 


12.86 


13.S5 


14 84 


15.83 


16.82 


17.81 


18.80 


41 


u 


12.50 


13.54 


14.58 


15.63 


16.67 


17.71 


18.75 


19.79 


50 


li'e 


13.13 


14.22 


15.31 


16.41 


17.50 


18.59 


19.69 


20.78 


5V 


11 


13.75 


14.90 


16.04 


17.19 


18 33 


19.48 


20.63 


21.77 


5^ 


1/e 


14.38 


15.57 


16.77 


1797 


19 17 


20.36 


31.56 


22 76 


57, 


If 


15.00 


16 25 


17.50 


18.75 


20.00 


21.25 


22.50 


23.75 


6( 


li% 


15.63 


16.93 


18.23 


19.53 


21.83 


22.14 


23.44 


24.74 


6S 


U 


16.25 


17.60 


18.96 


20.31 


21.67 


23.02 


24.38 


25.73 


6E( 


Ul 


16 88 


18.25 


19.69 


21.09 


22 50 


23.91 


25.31 


26.72 


6?1 


If 


17.50 


18 96 


20.42 


21.88 


23.33 


24.79 


20.25 


27.71 


7C 


ll-l 


18.13 


19,64 


21.15 


22.66 


24.17 


25 68 


27.19 


28.70 


72- 


u 


18.75 


20.31 


21.88 


23.44 


25.00 


26 56 


28.13 


29.69 


7fi 


iJi 


19.38 


20.99 


22.60 


24 22 


25.83 


27.45 


29.06 


30.68 


77 


2 


20.00 


21.67 


23.33 


25.00 


26.67 


28.33 


30.00 


31.67 


801 



55 

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON 
PER LINEAL FOOT 



- 






( 


CONTINUED.) 








i.s 


5 


5i 


5i 


5f 


6 


6i 


t5i 


6f 


11 


l\ 


1.04 


1.09 


1.15 


1.20 


1.25 


1.30 


1.35 


1.41 


2.50 


i 


2.08 


2.19 


2.29 


2.40 


2.50 


2.60 


2.71 


2 81 


5.00 


i% 


3.13 


3.28 


3.44 


3.59 


375 


3.90 


4.06 


4.22 


7.50 


i 


4.17 


4.38 


4.58 


4.79 


5.00 


5.21 


5.42 


5.63 


10.00 


fS 


5.21 


5.47 


5.73 


5.99 


6.25 


6.51 


6.77 


7.03 


12.50 


f 


G.25 


6.56 


6.88 


7.19 


7.50 


7.81 


8.13 


8.44 


15.00 


1 /e 


7.29 


7.66 


8.02 


8.39 


8.75 


9.11 


9.48 


9.84 


17.50 


' i 


8.33 


8.75 


9.17 


9.58 


10.00 


10.42 


10.83 


11.25 


20.00 


1 1^ 


9.38 


9.84 


10.31 


10.78 


11.25 


11.72 


12.19 


12.66 


22.50 


' f 


10.42 


10.94 


11.46 


11.98 


12.50 


13.02 


13.54 


14.06 


25.00 


H 


11.4(5 


12.03 


12.60 


13.18 


13.75 


14.32 


14.90 


15.47 


27.50 


! f 


12.50 


13.13 


13.75 


14.38 


15.00 


15.63 


16.25 


16.88 


30.00 


iil 


13 54 


1422 


14.90 


15.57 


16.25 


16.93 


17.60 


18.28 


32.50 


i 


14.58 


15.31 


16.04 


16.77 


17.50 


18 23 


18.96 


19.69 


35.00 


H 


15.63 


16.41 


17.19 


17.97 


18.75 


19.53 


20.31 


21.09 


37.50 




16.67 


17.50 


18.33 


19.17 


20.00 


20.83 


21.67 


22.50 


40.00 


iig 


17.71 


18.59 


19.48 


20 36 


21.25 


22.14 


23.02 


23.91 


42.50 


U 


18.75 


19.69 


20 63 


21 56 


22.50 


23.44 


24.38 


25.31 


45.00 


li% 


19.79 


20.78 


21.77 


22.76 


23.75 


24.74 


25.73 


26.72 


47.50 


u 


20.83 


21.88 


22.92 


23.96 


25.00 


26.04 


27.08 


28.13 


50.00 


lr\- 


21.88 


22.97 


24.06 


25.16 


26.25 


27.34 


28.44 


29.53 


52.50 


If 


22.92 


24.06 


25.21 


26.35 


27.50 


28.65 


29.79 


30.94 


55 00 


l/e 


23.96 


25.16 


26 35 


27.55 


28.75 


29.95 


31.15 


32.34 


57.50 


u 


25.00 


26.25 


27.50 


28.75 


30.00 


31.25 


32.50 


33 75 


60.00 


H^6 


26.04 


27.31 


28 65 


29.95 


31 25 


32.55 


33.85 


35.16 


62 50 


11 


27.08 


28-44 


29.79 


31.15 


32.50 


33.85 


35.21 


36.56 


65.00 


iH 


28.13 


29.63 


30.94 


32 34 


33.75 


35.16 


36.56 


37.97 


67,50 


If 


29 17 


30.63 


32.08 


33.54 


35.00 


36.46 


37.92 


39.38 


70 00 


ifl 


30.21 


31.72 


33.23 


34 74 


36.25 


37.76 


39.27 


40.78 


72 50 


11 


31.25 


32 81 


34.38 


35 94 


37.50 


39.06 


40.63 


42.19 


75.00 


Ui 


32.29 


33.91 


35.52 


37.14 


38.75 


40 36 


41.98 


43.59 


77.50 


2 


33.33 


35.00 


36.67 


38.33 


40.00 


41 67 


43.33 


45.00 


80.00 



56 



WEIGHTS QF FLAT ROLLED IRON 
PER LINEAL FOOT. 



(CONTINUED.) 



n 



8i 



8^ 



81 



1.46 
2.93 

4.38 

5.83 

7.21) 

8.75 

1021 

11.07 

13.13 

14.58 

10.04 

17.50 

18.90 

20.42 

21.88 

23.33 
24.79 
20.25 

27.71 
29.17 
30.02 
32.08 
33.54 
35.00 
30.46 
37.92 
39. 3S 
40 83 
42.29 
43.79 
45.21 



1.51 

3.02 

4.53 

6 04 

7.55 

9.06 

10.57 

12.08 

13.59 

15.10 

16.61 

18.13 

19.64 

21.15 

22.66 

24.17 
25.68 
27.19 
28.70 
30.21 
31.72 
33.23 
34.74 
30.25 
37.70 
39.27 
40. 7S 
42.29 
43 80 
45.31 
46.82 



1.56 

3.13 

4.69 

6.25 

7.81 

9.38 

10.94 

12.50 

14.00 

15.63 

17.19 

18.75 

20.31 

21.88 

23.44 

25.00 
26.56 
28.13 
29.69 
31.25 
32.81 
34.88 
35 94 
37.50 

39 06 

40 03 
42.19 
43.7.) 
45 31 
46.88 
48.44 



1.61 
3.23 

4.84 

6.46 

8.07 

9.69 

11.30 

12,92 

14.53 

10.15 

17.70 

19.38 

20.99 

22 60 

24.22 

25.83 
27.45 
29.06 
30.08 
32.29 
33.91 
35 52 
37.14 
38.75 
40.36 
41.98 
43 59 
45.21 
46.82 
48.44 
50.05 



1.67 

3.33 

5.00 

6.67 

8.33 

10.00 

11.07 

13 33 

15.00 

10.67 

18.33 

20.00 

21.67 

23.33 

25.00 

20.07 
28.33 
30.00 
31.07 
33.33 
35.00 
30 07 
38.33 
40.00 
41.07 
43.33 
45.00 
46.67 
48.33 
50.00 
51.67 



1.72 
3.34 
5.16 

6.88 
8.59 
10.31 
12.03 
13.75 
15.47 
17.19 
18.91 
20.03 
22 34 
24.06 
25.78 

27.50 
29. 22 
30.94 
32 m 
34 38 
36.09 
37.81 
39.53 
41.25 
42.97 
44.69 
46 51 
4S.13 
49.84 
51 56 
53.28 



1.77 

354 

5.31 

7.08 

8.85 

10.03 

12.40 

14.17 

15.94 

17.71 

19.48 

21.25 

23.02 

24.79 

26.56 

28.33 
30.10 
31.88 
33,05 
35.42 
37 19 
38.96 
40.73 
42.50 
44 27 
46.04 
47 81 
49.58 
51 .35 
53.13 
54.91 



1.82 

3.65 

5.47 

7.29 

9.11 

10.94 

12.76 

14.58 

16.41 

18.23 

20.05 

21.88 

23.70 

25.52 

27.34 

29.17 
30.99 
32.81 
34.64 
36.46 
38.28 
40.10 
41.93 
43.75 
45.57 
47.40 
49.22 
51.04 
52.86 
54 69 
56.51 



46.67 48.33 50.00 51.67 53.33 55.00 50.67 58.33 80.00 





57 
WEIGHTS OF FLAT 


ROLLED 1 


RON 




(CONTINUED.) 


|j 

.— .2 
^ .E 


9 


9i 


9* 


Of 


10 


m 


lOi 


lOf 


12 


J 


1.88 


1.93 


1.98 


2.03 


2.08 


2,14 


2.19 


2.24 


2.50 


'i 


3.75 


3.85 


3.96 


4.06 


4.17 


4.27 


4.38 


4.48 


5,00 


3 
1 6 


5. 03 


5.76 


5.94 


6.09 


6 25 


6.14 


6.56 


6.72 


7.50 


i 


7.50 


7.71 


7.92 


8.13 


8.33 


r^8.54 


8.75 


8.96 


10.00 


5 
1 6 


9 38 


9.64 


9.90 


10.16 


10.42 


10.68 


10.94 


11.20 


12 50 


f 


ll.t35 


11.56 


11.88 


12 19 


12.50 


12.81 


13.13 


13.44 


15.00 


7 
1 6 


13.13 


13.49 


13.85 


14.22 


14.58 


14.95 


15.31 


15.68 


17 50 


i 


15,00 


1542 


15.83 


16.25 


16 67 


17.08 


17.50 


17.92 


20.00 


9 


16.88 


17.34 


17.81 


18.28 


18.75 


19.22 


19.69 


20.16 


22.50 


¥ 


18.75 


19.27 


19.79 


20.31 


20 83 


21.35 


21.88 


22.40 


25.00 


1 1 

1 6 


20.63 


21.20 


21.77 


22.34 


22.92 


23 49 


24.06 


24.66 


27.50 


f 


22.50 


23.13 


23.75 


24.38 


25.00 


25.62 


26 25 


26 88 


30.00 


13 
1 6 


24.38 


25.05 


25.73 


26.41 


27.08 


27.76 


28 44 


29.11 


32.50 


i 


26.25 


26.98 


27.71 


28.44 


29.17 


29.90 


30 63 


31.35 


35.00 


n 


28.13 


28.91 


29.69 


30.47 


31 25 


32.03 


3281 


33.59 


37.50 




30.00 


30 83 


31.67 


32 50 


33.33 


34.17 


35.00 


35.83 


40.00 


16 


31 88 


32.76 


33 65 


34.53 


35.42 


36 80 


37,19 


38 07 


42.50 


1 i 


33.75 


34.69 


35 63 


36.56 


37.50 


38.44 


39 38 


40.31 


45.00 


1 3 
16 


35.63 


36.61 


37.60 


38.59 


39.58 


40.57 


41.56 


42.55 


47.50 


u 


37 50 


38.54 


39.58 


40 63 


41.67 


42.71 


43.75 


44.79 


50.00 


1 s 

^19 


39.38 


40.47 


41 56 


42.66 


43.75 


44 84 


45 94 


47.03 


52.50 


If 


41.25 


42.40 


43-54 


44.69 


45.83 


46.98 


48.13 


49.27 


55.00 


1 7 
16 


43.13 


44.32 


45 52 


46.72 


47.92 


49.11 


50.31 


51.51 


57.50 


li 


45.00 


46.25 


47.50 


48.75 


50.00 


51.25 


52,50 


53.75 


60 00 


1 9 
4 6 


46.88 


48.18 


49.48 


50.78 


52 08 


53.39^ 


54.69 


55.99 


62.50 


If 


48.75 


50.10 


51.46 


52.81 


54.17 


55.52 i 


56.88 


58.23 


65.00 


16 


50.63 


52.03 


53 44 


54.84 


56.25 


57.66 


59.06 


60.47 


67.50 


If 


52 50 


53.96 


55.42 


56 88 


58 33 


59.79 


61.25 


62.71 


70.00 


111 


54.38 


55.89 


57.40 


58.91 


60.42 


61.93 


63 44 


64.95 


72 50 


1| 


56.25 


57 81 


59.38 


60 94 


62 50 


64.06 


65.63 


67 19 


75.00 


1 15 
■•^16 


58.13 


59 74 


61.35 


62 97 


64.58 


66.20 


67.8b 


69.43 


77.50 


2 


60.00 


61.67 


63.S3 


65.00 


66.67 


68.33i 


70.00 


71.67 


80.00 













58 










WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON | 


PER LINEAL FOOT. 




(CONTINUED.) 




:i.E 


11 


Hi 


m 


llf 


13 


m 


12i 


ISf 


m i 


iV 


3.31) 


3.84 


3.40 


3.45 


3.50 


3.55 


2.60 


3.66 


Is? ^ 


i 


4.58 


4.68 


4.79 


4.90 


5.00 


5.10 


5.31 


5.31 


-.:^ 


A 


6.88 


7.08 


7.19 


7.34 


7.50 


7.66 


7.97 


7.97 


^5 ^ 


i 


9.17 


9.38 


9.58 


9.79 


10.00 


10.31 


10.43 


10.63 


S^^ 


5 
16 


11. 4() 


11.73 


11.98 


1334'l3.50 


13.76 


18.03 


13.38 


^ 2 ' 


1 


18.75 


14.06 


14.88 


14.69 


15.00 


15 31 


15.68 


15.94 


S • 2 

M - ^ 


7 


16.04 


16.41 


16.77 


17.14 


17.50 


17.86 


18.38 


18.59 


¥ 


18.33 


18.75 


19.17 


19.58 


30.00 


30.43 


30.83 


31.35 




9 
1 6 


30.63 


31.09 


31.56 


33 08'33 50 


23.97 


38.44 


33.91 


^ ^ +-) 


f 


33.1)3 


33.44 


33.96 


34.48 25.00 


35.53 


36.04 


36.56 


iJ.s 


11 
1 G 


35 31 


35.78 


36.85 


2() 93 37.50 


38.07 


38 65 


39.33 


O "'"' 'CJ 


f 


37.50 


38.13 


38.75 


39 88 30.00 


30.88 


81.35 


31.88 


OJ "^ 


t 3 
1 6 


31). 79 


30.47 


81.15 


31. 8333. 50 


33.18 


33.85 


34.53 




1 


33.08 


83.81 


38.54 


34 37 


35.00 


35.73 


36.46 


37.19 


a*"" i 


15 
IG 


84,38 


35.16 


35 94 


36 73 


37.50 


38.38 


39 06 


39.84 


il- . ' 




36.67 


37.50 


38.83 


39.17 


40.00 


40.83 


41.67 


43.50 


7i '^ C ^r> ' 


1 1 


38.96 


39.84 


40.73 


41.61 


43.50 


43.39 


44.37 


45.16 


^^i^OD 


u 


41.35 


43.19 


43.13 


44 06 


4^.00 


45.94 


46.88 


47.81 




1 3 

^16 


48.54 


44.58 


45.53 


46.51 


47.50 


48.49 


49.48 


50.47 


1 X 
^ 4 


45.83 


46.88 


37.93 


48.96 


50 00 


51.04 


53.08 


53.13 


•r fcc J: II 


1 5 
18 


48.18 


49.33 


50 31 


51 41 


53 50 


58.59 


54 69 


55.78 


■l|s 


If 


50 43 


51.56 


53.71 


53.85 


55 00 


5615 


57.39 


58 44 


1 7 
16 


53.71 


58.91 


55.10 


56.80 


57 50 


58.70 


59 90 


61.09 


C^t ~ — CO 


\i 


55.00 


56.35 


57.50 


58.75 


60.00 


61.35 


63.50 


63 75 


T" "^ :; -r 


1 9 
J 1 « 


57.39 


58 59 


59 90 


61.30 


63 50 


63.80 


65.10 


64.41 


C -5 H«x; 


If 


59 58 


60 94 


63.39 


63 65 


65.00 


66.35 


67 71 '69 06 


di jj ^ 


1 1 1 
^ 1 G 


61.88 


63.38 


64.69 


66.09 


67.50 


68.91 


70.31 


7173 


If 


64.17 


65 63 


67.08 


68 54 


70.00 


71.46 


73.93 


74.38 


1 1 :i 

^16 


66.46 


67.97 


69.48 


70.99 


73.50 


74.01 


75 53 


77.03 


> Hoo 


1| 


68.75 


70 31 


77.88 


73.44 


75 Of 


76 56 


78.18 


79.69 


i^^l^ \ 


1 I 5 
^16 


71.04 


73.66 


74.37 


75.89 


77.50 


78 11 


80.78 83.34 




2 


73.33 


75.00 


76.67 


78.33 


80.00 


81.67 


83.33 


85.00 


C tS OS 













59 










AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON 








PER 


LINEAL 


FOOT. 






For Thickness f 


rom 1^6 in. 


to 2 tn. and Widths 






fro 


m 1 ir 


. to 12?., In 








It 


1 


li 


H 


If 


2 


3i 


3i 


2f 


12 


h 


.063 


.078 


.094 


.109 


.125 


.141 


.156 


.172 


.750 


i 


.125 


.156 


.188 


.219 


.250 


.28! 


.313 


.344 


1.50 


A 


.188 


.234 


.281 


.328 


.375 


.422 


.469 


.516 


2.25 


i 


.250 


.313 


.375 


.438 


.500 


.563 


.625 


.688 


3.00 


1^ 


.313 


.391 


.469 


.547 


.625 


.703 


.781 


.859 


3.75 


t 


.375 


.469 


.563 


.656 


.750 


.844 


.938 


1.03 


4 50 


-le 


.438 


.547 


.656 


.766 


.875 


.984 


1.09 


1.20 


5.25 


i 


.500 


.625 


.750 


.875 


1.00 


1.13 


1.25 


1.38 


6.00 


i% 


.563 


.703 


.844 


.984 


1.13 


1.27 


1.41 


1.55 


6.75 


^ 


.625 


.781 


.938 


1.09 


1.25 


1.41 


1.56 


1.72 


7.50 


H 


.688 


.859 


1.03 


1.20 


1.38 


1.55 


1.72 


1.89 


8.25 


f 


.750 


.938 


1.13 


1.31 


1.50 


1.69 


1.88 


2.06 


9.00 


13 


.813 


1.02 


1.22 


1.42 


1.63 


1.83 


2.03 


2.23 


9.75 


¥ 


.875 


1.09 


1.31 


1.53 


1.75 


1.97 


2.19 


2.41 


10.50 


[1 


.938 


1.17 


1.41 


1.64 


1.88 


2.11 


2.34 


2.58 


11.25 


I 


1.00 


1.25 


1.50 


1 .75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2.75 


12.00 


I A 


1.06 


1.33 


1.59 


1.86 


2.13 


2.39 


2.66 


2.92 


12.75 


u 


1.13 


1.41 


1.69 


1.97 


2.25 


2.53 


2.81 


3.09 


13 50 


ii'« 


1.19 


1.48 


1.78 


2.08 


2.38 


2.67 


2.97 


3.27 


14.25 


li 


1 25 


1.56 


1.88 


2.19 


2.50 


2.81 


3.13 


3.44 


15.00 


Ire 


1.31 


1.61 


1.97 


2.30 


263 


2.95 


3.28 


3.61 


15.75 


i¥ 


1.38 


1.72 


2.06 


2.41 


2.75 


3.09 


3.44 


3.78 


16.50 


1/e 


1.44 


1.80 


2.16 


2.52 


2.88 


3.23 


3.59 


3.95 


17.25 


u 


1.50 


1.88 


2.25 


2.63 


3.00 


3.38 


3 75 


4.13 


18.00 


If^e 


1.56 


1.95 


234 


2.73 


3.13 


3.52 


3.91 


4.30 


18.75 


u 


1.63 


2.03 


2 44 


2.84 


3.25 


3.66 


4.06 


4.47 


19.50 


Ifi 


1.69 


2.11 


2.53 


2.95 


3 38 


3.80 


4.22 


4.64 


20.25 


If 


1.75 


2.19 


2 63 


3.06 


3.50 


3.94 


4.38 


4.81 


21.00 


Ifl 


1.81 


2.27 


2.72 


3.17 


3.63 


4.08 


4.53 


4.98 


21.75 


u 


1.88 


2.34 


2.81 


3.28 


3.75 


4.22 


4.69 


5.16 


22.50 


111 


1.94 


2.42 


2.91 


3.39 


3.88 


4.36 


4.84 


5.33 


23.25 


2 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3.50 


4.00 


4.50 


5.00 


5.50 


24.00 



60 
AREAS QF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 

(CONTINUED.) 



3 


3i 


3i 


31 


4 


4i 


4i 


41 


.188 


.203 


.219 


.234 


.250 


.266 


.281 


.297 


.375 


.406 


.438 


.469 


.500 


.531 


.563 


.594 


.563 


.609 


.656 


.703 


.750 


.757 


.844 


.891 


.750 


.813 


.875 


.938 


1.00 


1.06 


1.13 


1.19 


.938 


102 


1.09 


1.17 


1.25 


1.33 


1.41 


1.48 


1.13 


1.22 


1.31 


1.41 


1.50 


1.59 


1.69 


1.78 


1.31 


1.42 


1.53 


1.64 


1.75 


1.86 


1.97 


2.08 


1.50 


1.63 


1.75 


1.88 


2.00 


2.13 


2.25 


2 38 


1.69 


1.83 


1.97 


2.11 


2.25 


2.39 


2.53 


2 67 


1.88 


2.03 


2.19 


2 34 


2.50 


2.66 


2.81 


2.97 


2.06 


2.23 


2.41 


2 58 


2.75 


2.92 


3.09 


3.27 


2.35 


2.44 


2.63 


281 


3 00 


3.19 


3.38 


3.56 


2.44 


2.64 


2.84 


3.05 


3.25 


3.45 


3.66 


3.86 


2.63 


2.84 


3.06 


3.28 


3.50 


3.72 


3.94 


4.16 


2.81 


3.05 


3 28 


3.52 


3.75 


3.98 


422 


4.45 


3.00 


3.25 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4.25 


4.50 


4.75 


3.19 


3.45 


3.72 


3.98 


4.25 


4.52 


4.78 


5.05 


3 38 


3.66 


3.94 


4.22 


4 50 


4.78 


5.06 


5.34 


3.56 


3.86 


4.16 


4.45 


4.75 


5 05 


5.34 


5.64 


3.75 


4.06 


4.38 


4.69 


5.00 


5.31 


5.63 


5.94 


3.94 


4 27 


4.59 


^.92 


5.25 


5.58 


5.91 


6.23 


4.13 


4.47 


4.81 


5.16 


5 50 


5.84 


6 19 


6.53 


4 31 


4.67 


5.03 


5.39 


5.75 


6.11 


6.47 


6.83 


4.50 


4.88 


5.25 


5.63 


6 00 


6.38 


6.75 


7.13 


4.69 


5.08 


5.47 


5.86 


6.25 


6.64 


7.03 


7.42 


4.88 


5.28 


5.69 


6 09 


6.50 


6.91 


7.31 


7.72 


5.06 


5-48 


5.91 


6.33 


6.75 


7.17 


7 59 


8 02 


5.25 


5.69 


6.13 


6 56 


7.00 


7.44 


7.88 


8 31 


5.44 


5.89 


6.34 


6.80 


7.25 


7.70 


8.16 


8.61 


5.63 


6.09 


6.56 


7.03 


7.50 


7.97 


8.44 


8.91 


5.81 


6.30 


6.78 


7.27 


7.75 


8.23 


8.72 


9.20 


6.00 


6.50 


7.00 


7.50 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


9.50 











61 














AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 




(CONTINUED.) 


Is 
11 


5 


5i 


5i 
.344 


51 
.359 


6 
.375 


6i 
.391 


.406 


Of 
.422 


12 


le 


.313 


.328 


.750 


li 


.620 


.656 


.688 


.719 


.750 


.781 


.813 


.844 


1 50 


,3 

1 ti 


.938 


.984 


1.03 


1.08 


1.13 


1 17 


1.22 


1.27 


2.25 


i 


1.25 


1.31 


1.38 


1.44 


1.50 


1.56 


1 63 


1.69 


3.00 


5 
16 


1.56 


1.64 


1.72 


1.80 


1.88 


1.95 


2.03 


2.11 


3.75 


f 


1.88 


1.97 


2 06 


2.16 


2.25 


2.34 


2.44 


2.53 


4.50 


7 
1 G 


2.19 


2.30 


2.41 


2.52 


2 63 


2.73 


2.84 


2.95 


526 


i 


2.50 


2.63 


2.75 


2 88 


3.00 


3.13 


3 25 


3.38 


6.00 


9 
1 6 


2.81 


2.95 


3.09 


3.23 


3.38 


3 52 


3.66 


3.80 


6.75 


i 


3.13 


3.28 


3.44 


3 59 


3.75 


3.91 


4 06 


4.22 


7.50 


U 


3.44 


3.61 


3.78 


3.95 


4.13 


4.30 


4 47 


4.64 


8.25 


f 


3.75 


3.94 


4.13 


4.31 


4.50 


4.69 


4.88 


5.06 


9.00 


13 
1 6 


4.06 


4.27 


4.47 


4 67 


4.88 


5.08 


5.28 


5.48 


9.75 


1 


4.38 


4.59 


4.81 


5.03 


5.25 


5.47 


5.69 


5.91 


10.50 


15 
16 


4.69 


4.92 


5.16 


5.39 


5.63 


5.86 


6.09 


6.33 


11.25 




5.00 


5.25 


5.50 


5.75 


6 00 


6.25 


6.50 


6.75 


12.00 


U'6 


5.31 


5.58 


5.84 


6.11 


6.38 


6.64 


6 91 


7.17 


12.75 


U 


5.63 


5.91 


6.19 


6.47 


().75 


7.03 


7.31 


7.59 


i3.50 


li'e 


5.94 


6,23 


6 53 


6 83 


7.13 


7.42 


7.72 


8.0-2 


14.25 


U 


6.25 


6.56 


6.88 


7 19 


7.50 


7.81 


8.13 


8.44 


15 00 


ll'6 


6.56 


6.89 


7.22 


7.55 


7.88 


8.20 


8.53 


8.86 


15 75 


If 


6.88 


7.22 


7 56 


7.91 


8.25 


8.59 


8.94 


9-28 


16.50 


1/6 


7.19 


7.55 


7 91 


8.27 


8.63 


8 98 


9.31 


9.70 


17.25 


li 


7.50 


7.88 


8.25 


8.63 


9.00 


9.38 


9.75 


1013 


18 00 


1^ 


7.81 


8.20 


8.59 


8 98 


9.38 


9.77 


10.16 


10 55 


18 75 


u 


8.13 


8.53 


8 91 


9.31 


9 75 


10.16 


10 56 


10.97 


19 50 


lU 


8.44 


8.S6 


9 28 


9.70 


10.13 


10.55 


10.97 


11.39 


20.25 


If 


8.75 


9 19 


963 


10.06 


10,50 


10.91 


11. 3S 


11.81 


21.00 


lu 


9.06 


9.52 


9.97 


10.42 


10.88 


11.33 


11.78 


12 23 


21.75 


ll 


9.38 


9.84 


10.31 


10.78 


11.25 


11.72 


12.19 


12.66 


22 50 


115 
^16 


9,69 


10.17 


10.66 


11.14 


11 63 


12.11 


12.59 


13.08 


23.25 


2 


10.00 


10.50 


11.00 


11.50 


12.00 


1250 


13.00 


13.50 


24.00 











62 










AREAS 


OF 


FLAT 


ROLLED 


IRON 






(CONTI^ 


UED.) 






ly 


n 


'7i 


n 


8 


H 


H^ 


8f 


12 


f^«- 


.438 


.453 


.469 


.484 


.500 


.516 


531 


.547 




.75: 


1 6 


.875 


.906 


.938 


.969 


1.00 


1.03 


1.06 


1.09 


1.5. 




1.31 


136 


1.41 


1.45 


1.50 


1.55 


1.59 


1.64 


2.2' 


1.75 


1.81 


188 


1.94 


2.00 


2 06 


2.13 


2.19 


3.0t 


5_ 


2.19 


2.27 


2.34 


2.42 


2.50 


2.58 


2.66 


2.73 


3.7 


1 6 


2.63 


2.72 


2.81 


2 91 


3.00 


3.09 


3 19 


3.28 


4.5. 


^^« 


306 


3.17 


3 28 


3 39 


3 50 


3.61 


3.72 


3.83 


5.2' 




3.50 


3.63 


3 75 


3.88 


400 


4.13 


4.25 


4.38 


6.01 


ffi 


3.94 


4.08 


4.22 


4.36 


4.50 


4.64 


4.78 


4.92 


6 7' 


^ 


4.38 


4.53 


4 69 


4.84 


5.00 


5.16 


5.31 


5 47 


7.5: 


1 I 


4 31 


4.98 


5.16 


5.33 


5.50 


5 67 


5 84 


6 02 


8.2: 


f 


5.25 


5.44 


5 63 


5.81 


6.00 


6.19 


6.38 


6.56 


9.0( 


TS 


5.69 


5 89 


6.09 


6.30 


6.50 


6 70 


6.91 


7.11 


9 r 


1 


6.13 


6.34 


6.56 


6 78 


7.00 


7.22 


7.44 


7.66 


10.5,' 


n 


6.56 


6 80 


7.03 


7^27 


7 50 


7.73 


7.97 


8.20 


11.2^ 


1 


7.00 


7.25 


7.50 


7.75 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.75 


12.0«i 


iiV 


7 44 


7.70 


7.97 


8.23 


8.50 


8 77 


9.03 


9 30 


12.71 


u 


7.88 


8.16 


8.44 


8.72 


9.00 


9.2,S 


9.56 


9.84 


13.5 


1 Y fi 


8 31 


8.61 


8 91 


9.20 


9.50 


9 80 


10.09 


10 39 


14.2 


u 


8.75 


9 06 


9.38 


9 69 


10.00 


10.31 


10 63 


10.94 


15.01 


ll^G 


9.19 


9 52 


9.84 


10.17 


10.51) 


10 83 


11.16 


11.48 


15.71 


If 


9.63 


9 97 


10.31 


10.66 


1 1 .00 


11 34 


11.69 


12 03 


16.5 


l/« 


10.06 


10.42 


10.78 


11.14 


1 1 50 


11.86 


12.22 


12.58 


17 2 


u 


10.50 


10 88 


11.25 


11.63 


12.00 


12.38 


12 75 


13.13 


18.0' 


^A 


10.94 


11.33 


11.72 


12.11 


12 50 


12.89 


13.28 


13.67 


18.7.: 


1 f 


11.38 


11.78 


12.19 


12 59 


13 00 


13.41 


13 81 


14.22 


19.51 


1]^ 


11.81 


12.23 


12.66 


13 08 


13 50 


13.92 


14 34 


14 77 


20.2. 


ll 


12.25 


12 69 


13.13 


13.56 


14.00 


14.44 


14.88 


15.31 


21.01 


111 


12 69 


13.14 


13.59 


14.05 


14.50 


14 95 


15.41 


15.86 


21.7. 


u 


13 13 


13.59 


14 06 


14.53 


15 00 


15.47 


15 94 


16.41 


22 51 


l}l 


13.56 


14.05 


14.53 


15.02 


15.50 


15,98 


16.47 


16.95 


23. 2i 


2 


14,00 


14.50 


15.00 


15.50 


16 00 


16.50 


17.00 


17.50 


24 01; 











63 










AREAS 


OF 


FLAT 


ROLLED IRON. 






(CONTINUED ) 






: S 


y 


n 


n 


n 


10 


lOi 


lOi 


lOf 


12 


i'e 


.503 


.578 


.594 


.009 


.025 


.041 


.050 


.672 


.750 


'i 


1.13 


1.10 


1.19 


1 22 


1.25 


1.28 


1.31 


1 34 


1.50 


i% 


1 09 


1 73 


1.78 


1.83 


1.88 


1.92 


1.97 


2.02 


2.25 


li 


2.25 


231 


2.38 


2.44 


2 50 


2.50 


2 03 


2.69 


3.00 


f% 


2,81 


2.89 


2.97 


3 05 


3.13 


3 20 


3.28 


3.30 


3.75 


i 


338 


3.47 


3.50 


3.00 


3.75 


3.84 


3.94 


4.03 


4.50 


7 
16 


3.94 


4.05 


4.10 


4.27 


4.38 


4.48 


4.59 


4-70 


5.25 


'i 


4.50 


4.03 


4.75 


4.88 


5.00 


5 13 


5.25 


5 38 


0.00 


t'^e 


5.00 


5.20 


5.34 


5.48 


5 03 


5. '17 


5 91 


6.05 


0.75 


if 


5.03 


5.78 


5.91 


0.09 


25 


0.41 


0.50 


0.72 


750 


u 


0.19 


030 


0.53 


70 


0.88 


7.05 


7.22 


7.39 


8.25 


If 


0.75 


94 


7.13 


7.31 


7.50 


7.09 


7.88 


8.00 


9.00 


13 
1 6 


7.31 


7.52 


7.72 


7.92 


8.13 


8 33 


8.53 


8.73 


9.75 


'1 


7.88 


8.09 


8.31 


853 


8 75 


8.97 


9.19 


9.41 


10.50 


n 


8.44 


807 


8.91 


9.14 


9.38 


9.01 


9.84 


10.08 


11.25 




9.00 


9.25 


9.50 


9.75 


10 00 


10.25 


10.50 


10.75 


12.00 


I'e 


9 50 


9.83 


10.09 


10.30 


10.03 


10.89 


11.10 


11.42 


12.75 


i 


10.13 


10.41 


10.09 


10 97 


11.25 


11.53 


11.81 


12.09 


13.50 


r^o 


10.09 


10.98 


11.28 


11.58 


11.88 


12.17 


12.47 


12.77 


14.25 


i 


11.25 


11.50 


11 88 


12 19 


12.50 


12.81 


13.13 


13.44 


15 00 


i'« 


11.81 


12.14 


12.47 


12.80 


13.13 


13.45 


13.78 


1411 


15.75 


t 


12.38 


12.72 


1300 


13.41 


13 75 


14.09 


14.44 


14.78 


10.50 


7„ 
1 R 


12 94 


13.30 


13.00 


14.02 


14 38 


14.73 


15.09 


15.45 


17.25 


i 


13.50 


13.88 


14.25 


14 03 


15 00 


15.38 


15.75 


10.13 


18.00 


1^6- 


14 00 


14.45 


14.84 


15.23 


15 03 


10.03 


10.41 


10.80 


18.75 


1 


14.03 


15.03 


15 44 


15 84 


10.25 


10.00 


17.00 


17.47 


19.50 


f^ 


15.19 


15 01 


10.03 


10.45 


:o 88 


1730 


17.72 


18.14 


20.25 


f 


15 75 


10.19 


10.03 


17.00 


17.50 


17.94 


18 38 


18.81 


21.00 


Po 


10 31 


10.77 


17 22 


17.07 


18.13 


18.58 


19.03 


19.48 


21.75 


1 


10.88 


17.34 


17.81 


18 28 


18 75 


19.22 


19.09 


20.10 


22.50 


11 


17.44 


17.92 


18.41 


18.89 


19.38 


19.80 


20.34 


20.83 


23.25 


^- 


18.00 


18.50 


19.00 


19.50 


20.00 


20.50 


21.00 


21.50 


24.00 



(34 
AREA OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 

(CONTINUED.) 



11 


lU 


lU 


llf 


12 


12i 


12i 


12f 


Iff 


.088 


.703 


.719 


.734 


.750 


.766 


.781 


.799 




1 38 


1.41 


1.44 


1.47 


150 


1 53 


1.56 


1.59 


-fj 


2. 00 


2 11 


2.16 


220 


2.25 


2.30 


2.34 


2.39 




3.75 


2.81 


2.88 


2.94 


3.00 


3.06 


3.13 


3.19 


hi 


3 44 


3.52 


3.59 


3 07 


3.75 


3.83 


3 91 


3.98 


cu'^r 


4.13 


4.22 


4.31 


4.41 


4.50 


4.59 


4.69 


4.78 


So') 


4.81 


4.92 


5.03 


.514 


5.25 


5.30 


5.47 


5.58 


;^*"c 


5.50 


5.63 


5.75 


5 88 


6.00 


6.13 


025 


38 


w 


6.11) 


6 33 


6.47 


001 


6.75 


6.89 


7.03 


7.17 




6.88 


7.03 


7.19 


7.34 


7,50 


7.66 


7.81 


7.97 


2 ) 


50 


7.73 


7.91 


8.08 


8.25 


8.42 


8 59 


8.77 


(U CO J. 


8.25 


8.44 


8.63 


8.81 


9.00 


9.19 


9.38 


9.50 




8 94 


9.14 


9.34 


9.55 


9.75 


9.95 


10.10 


10.3.) 




9.03 


9.84 


10.06 


10.28 


10.50 


10.72 


;0.94 


11.16 




10.31 


10.55 


10.78 


1102 


11.25 


11.48 


IL 72 


11.95 


11^ 


11.00 


11.25 


11.50 


11.75 


12.00 


12.25 


12.50 


12.75 


lu 


1 1 .09 


11.95 


12.22 


12.48 


12.75 


13.02 


13.28 


13 55 




12.38 


12.66 


12.94 


13.22 


13.50 


13 78 


14 00 


14 34 


K' 


13.00 


13.36 


13.66 


13.95 


14.25 


14.55 


1484 


15.14 


ft\ 


13 75 


14.06 


N.38 


14.69 


15.00 


15.31 


15.03 


15.94 


j3 at 


1444 


14.77 


15 09 


15.42 


15,75 


16.08 


10 41 


16.73 


S uj 


15.13 


-.5.47 


15.81 


16.16 


16.50 


16 84 


17.19 


17.53 


^ 't\ 


15 81 


10.17 


16.53 


16.89 


17.25 


17 01 


17.97 


18.33 


%r 


16.50 


1().88 


17.25 


17.63 


18 00 


18.38 


18.75 


19.13 


"S^ 


17.19 


17.58 


17 97 


18 36 


18.75 


19 14 


19.53 


19.92 


•"•5 ' 


17.88 


18.28 


18 69 


19.09 


19.50 


19.91 


20.31 


20.72 


" 2 ■ 


18.56 


18 98 


19 41 


19 83 


20.25 


20 67 


21.09 


21.52 


o'S- 


19.25 


19.09 


20 13 


20 56 


21.00 


21.44 


21 88 


22.31 




19.94 


20 39 


20 84 


21.30 


21.75 


22.20 


22.00 


23 1 1 


is; 


20.63 


21 09 


21 56 


22.03 


22.50 


22.97 


23 44 


23 91 


< >.; 


21.31 


21.80 


22.28 


22.77 


23.25 


23.73 


24.22 


24.70 


(0 ^ . 


22.00 


22.50 


23.00 


23.50 


24.00 

• 


24.50 


25.00 


25.50 





65 



AREAS AND CIRCXJM FERENCE OF CIRCLES, 





For Diameters from i*g to 100, advancing by Tenths. 




. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


.0 

.1 


.31410 


.007854 


.1 


9.7389 


7.5477 


L2 


.03832 


.031410 


2 


10 0531 


8.0435 


.3 


.94348 


.070080 


^3 


10.3073 


8.5530 


.4 


1.3500 


.13500 


.4 


10.0814 


9.0793 


.5 


1.5708 


.19035 


.5 


10.9950 


9.0311 


.0 


1.8850 


.38374 


.0 


11.3097 


10.1788 


.7 


2.1891 


.38485 


.7 


11.0339 


10.7531 


.8 


3.5133 


.50300 


.8 


11.9381 


11.3411 


.9 


3.8374 


.03or. 


.9 


13.3522 


11.9459 


.0 


3.1410 


.7854 


4.0 


12.50'U 


13.5064 


.1 


3.4558 


.9503 


.1 


12.8805 


13.3035 


.3 


3.7099 


1.1310 


.2 


13.1947 


13.8544 


.3 


4.0841 


1.3373 


.3 


13.5088 


14 5220 


.4 


4.3982 


1.5394 


.4 


13.8230 


15.2053 


• .5 


4.7134 


1.7071 


.5 


14.1372 


15 9043 


.0 


5 0305 


3.0100 


.0 


14.4513 


10.0190 


.7 


5.3107 


3.2098 


.7 


14.7055 


17.3494 


: .8 


5.05-19 


3.5447 


.8 


15.0790 


18.0950 


.9 


5.9090 


3.8353 


.9 


15.3938 


18.8574 


2.0 


0.3832 


3.1410 


5.0 


15.7080 


19.0350 


.1 


0.5973 


34030 


.1 


10.0221 


20.4283 


2 


0.9115 


3.8013 


.3 


16.3303 


31.3373 


.3 


7.3357 


4.1548 


.3 


10.0504 


33.0018 


.4 


7.5398 


4.5339 


.4 


10.9040 


33.9032 


.5 


7.8540 


4 9087 


.5 


17.3788 


23.7583 


.6 


8.1081 


5.3093 


.0 


17.5929 


24.0301 


.7 


8.4833 


5.7350 


.7 


17.9071 


25.5170 


.8 


8.7905 


0.1575 


.8 


18.2313 


20 4308 


.9 


9.1100 


0.0053 


.9 


18.5354 


37 3397 


3.0 


9.4348 


7.0680 


0. 


18.8490 


38.3743 



66 

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. A 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diam. Circum, 



19.1637 
19.4779 
19.7920 
20.1062 

20.4204 
20.7345 

21.0487 
21.3628 
21,6770 

21 9911 

22 3053 
22 6195 
22.9336 
23.2478 



Area. 



28.2743 



29 2247 
30.1907 
31.1725 
32.1699 

33.1831 
34.2119 
35.2565 
36.3168 
37 3928 

38.4845 
39.5919 
40.7150 
41.8539 
43.0084 



23.5619 


44.1786 


23.8761 


45.6646 


24.1903 


46.5663 


24.5044 


47.7836 


24.8186 


49.0167 


25.1327 


50 2655 


25.4469 


51.5300 


25.7611 


52.8102 


26 0752 


54.1061 


26.3894 


554177 


26 7035 


56.7450 


27.0177 


58 0880 


27.3319 


59.4408 


27.6460 


60.8212 


27.9602 


62,2114 



Diam. 



63.6173 



.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

10.0 
.1 
.2 
!3 
.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 



Circum. Area 



11 



12.0 



28.5885 
28.9027 
29.2168 
29.5310 

29.8451 
30.1593 
30.4734 
30.7876 
31.1018 

31.4159 
31.7301 
32.0442 
32.3584 
32.6726 

32.9867 
33.3009 
33.6150 
33.9292 
34.2434 

34,5575 

34 8717 
35.1858 

35 5000 
35.8142 

36.1283 
36.4425 

36 7556 
37.0708 
37.3850 

37.6991 



61 

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

(CONTINUED.) 



■ 
Diam. 

.1 

2 

^3 

.4 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


S80133 
38.3274 
38.6416 
38 9557 


114.9901 
116.8987 
118 8229 
120.7628 


.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


47.4380 
47.7522 
48.0664 
48.3805 


179.0786 
181.4584 
183.8.536 
186.2650 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


39.2699 
39.5841 
39.8982 
40.2124 
40.5265 


122.7185 
124.6898 
126.6769 
128.6796 
130.6981 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


48.6947 
49.0088 
49.3230 
49.6372 
49.9513 


188.6919 
191.1345 
193.5928 
196.0668 
198.5565 


13.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


40.8407 
41.1549 
41 4690 
41.7832 
42.0973 


132.7323 

134.7822 
13(5.8478 
138 9291 
141.0261 


16.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


50.2655 
50.5796 
50.8938 
51.5221 
51.8363 


201.0619 
203.5831 
206 1199 
208 6724 
211.2407 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


42.4115 
42.7257 
43.0398 
43.3540 
43.6681 


143.1388 
145.2672 
147.4114 
149.5712 
151.7468 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


52.1504 
52.4646 

52.7788 
53.0929 
53.4071 


213.8246 
216.4243 
219.0397 
221.6708 
224.3176 


14.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


43 9823 
44.2965 
44.6106 
44.9248 
45.2389 


153.9380 
156.1450 
1 58 3677 
160.6061 
162.8602 


17.0 
.1 

.2 
.3 
.4 


53 4071 
53.7212 
54.0454 
54.3496 

54 6637 


226.9801 
229.6583 
232.3522 
235.0618 

237.7871 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


45.5531 
45.8673 
46.1814 
46.4956 
46.8097 


165.1300 
167.4155 
169.7167 
172.0336 
174.3662 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


54.9779 
55.2920 
55.5062 
55.9203 
56.2345 


240 5282 
243.2849 
246.0574 
248.8456 
251.6194 


15.0 


47.1239 


176.7146 


18.0 


56.5486 


254.4690 







68 






AREAS AND 


CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLEsJ 






(CONT 


NUED.] 






Diatn. 


Circuin. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circiim. 


Area. 


.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


56.8628 
57.1770 
57.4911 
57.8053 


257.3043 
260.1553 
263.0220 
365 9044 


.1 
2 

.4 


66.2876 
66.6018 
66-9159 
67.2301 


849 667: 
352 989^1 
356.337? 
359.680JI 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


58.1195 
58.4336 
58.7478 
59.0619 
59.3751 


268.8025 
271.7164 
274.6459 
277.5911 
280.5521 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


67.5402 

67.8584 
68.1726 
68,4867 
68 8009 


863.050JI 
366.485^) 
369.8361 
373 25:ifc 
376.6848 


19.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


59.6903 
60.0044 
60.3186 
C0.6827 
60.9469 


283.5287 
286 5211 
289 5292 
292 5530 
295.5925 


22.0 
.1 
.2 
.8 
.4 


69.1150 

69 4292 
69.7434 

70 0575 

70.3717 


380.1327 
383.596^; 
887.075C 
390.5707 
894.08 H 


.5 
.G 

.7 

-.1 


61.2611 

61 5752 
61.8894 

62 2035 
62.5177 


298.5477 
3()1.7186 
304.8052 
307 .9074 
311.0255 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


70.6858 
71,0000 
71 3142 
71.6283 
71 9425 


897.60781 
401.1500 
404.7078 

408.2814 
411.870? 


20.0 
.1 

2 

.3 

A 


62.8319 
63.1460 
63,4602 
63.7743 
64 0885 


314.1593 
317.30H7 
320 4739 
323.6547 
326.8513 


23.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


72 2566 

72.5708 
72.8849 
73.1991 
73.5133 


415.478(1 
419.0963 
422.7827 
426.8848 
430.0526 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


64.4026 
64.7168 
65.0310 
65 3451 
65.6593 


330.0636 
333.2916 
336.5353 
339.7947 
343.0698 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


73.8274 
74.1416 
74.4557 
74 7099 
75.0841 


438.7361 
487.4354 
441.1503 
444.8809 
448.6273 


12.0 


65.9734 


346.3606 


24.0 


75.3982 


452.3893: 







09 






AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 






(CONTINUED.) 






Diam. 

A 

.2 

.3 

1 .4 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


75.7124 
76.0265 
76 3407 
76.6549 


456.1671 
459 9600 
403.7698 
467 5947 


.1 
2 

^3 

.4 


85.1372 
85 4513 
85.7655 
86.0796 


576.8043 
581.0690 
585.3494 
589.6455 


.5 

1 .6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


76.9690 

77.2832 
77.5973 
77.9115 

78.2257 


471.4352 
475.2916 
479.1636 
483.0513 
486.9547 


.5 
.6 

.7 

-.1 


86.3938 
86.7080 
87.0221 
87.3363 
87.6504 


593.9574 

598.2849 
602.62S2 
606.9871 
611.3618 


25.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


78.5398 
78.8540 
79.1681 
79.4823 
79 7965 


490.8739 
494.8087 
498.7592 
502.7255 
506.7075 


28.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


87.9646 

88.2788 
88.5929 
88.9071 
89.2212 


615.7522 
620.1582 
624.5800 
629.0175 
633.4707 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


80.1106 
80.4248 
80.7389 
81.0531 
81.3672 


510.7052 

514.7185 
518.7476 
522.7924 
526.8529 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


89.5354 
89.8495 
90.1637 
90.4779 
90.7920 


637.9397 
642.4243 
646.9246 
651.4407 
655.9724 


26.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


81.6814 
81.9956 
82.3097 
82 0239 
82.9380 


530 9292 
535.0211 
539.1287 
543.2521 
547.3911 


29.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


91.1062 
91.4203 
91.7345 
92.0487 
92.3628 


660.5199 
665.0830 
669 6619 
674.2565 

678.8668 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


83.2522 
83.5664 

83.8805 
84.1947 
84.5088 


551.5459 
555.7163 
559.9025 
564.1044 
578.3220 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


92 6770 
92.9911 
93.3053 
93.6195 
93.9336 


683.4928 
688.1345 
592.7919 
697.4650 
702.1538 


27.0 


84.8230 


572.5553 


30.0 


94.2478 


706.8583 



70 






AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. wE 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diara. 


Circum, 


Area. 


Diatn. 


Circum. 


Area. 


.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


94.5619 
94.8761 
95.1903 
95.5044 


711.5786 
716 3145 
721.0662 
725.8336 


.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


103.9867 
104.3009 
104.6150 
104.9292 


860.4903 
865.6973 
870.9203 
876.1588 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


95.8186 
961327 
96.4469 
96.7611 
97.0752 


730.6167 
735.4154 
740.2299 
745.0601 
749.9060 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


105.2434 
105.5575 
105 8717 
106.1858 
106.5000 


881.4131 
886 6831 
891.9688 
897.2703 
902.5874 


31.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


97.3894 
97.7035 
98.0177 
98.3319 
98.6460 


754.7676 
759.6460 
764.5380 
769.4467 
774.3712 


34.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


106.8142 
107.1283 
107.4425 
107.7566 
108.0708 


907.9203 

913 2688 
918.6331 
924.0131 
929.4088 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


98.9602 
99.2743 

99.5885 

99.9026 

100.2168 


779.3113 
784.2672 
780.2388 
794.2260 
799.2290 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


108.3849 
108.6991 
109.0133 
109.3274 
109.6416 


934.8202 
940.2472 
945.6901 
951.1486 
956.6226 


32.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
A 


100.5310 
100 8451 
101.1593 
101.4734 

101.7888 


804.2477 
809.2821 
814.3322 
819 3980 
824.4796 


35.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


109.9557 
110.2699 
110.5841 
110.8982 
111 2124 


962.1126 
967.618^ 
973.139" 
978.6766 
984.229e 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


102.1018 
102.4159 
102.7301 
103.0442 
103.3584 


829.5768 
834.6898 
839.8185 
844.9628 
850.1229 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


111.5265 
111.8407 
112.1549 
112.4690 

112.7832 


989.798( 

995 382^ 

1000.982] 

1006.597'' 

1012, 229( 


33.0 


103.6726 


855.2986 


36.0 


113.0973 


1017.876( 



71 

.REAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

(CONTINUED.) 



m. 

1.1 
.2 

1.3 
1.4 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


113.4115 
113.7257 
114.0398 
114.3540 


1023.5387 
1029.2172 
1034.9113 
1040.6212 


.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


122.8363 
123.1504 
123.4046 

123.7788 


1200.7246 
1206.8742 
1213.0396 
1219.2207 


.5 
.6 

1.7 

i.8 

.9 


114.6681 
114.9823 
115.2965 
115.6106 
115.9218 


1046.3467 

1052.0880 
1057.8449 
10636176 
1069.4060 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


124.0929 
124.4071 
124.7212 
125 0354 
125.3495 


1225.4175 
1231.6300 

1237.8582 
1244.1021 
1250.3617 


r.o 
.1 

.2 

.3 

' .4 


116.2389 
116.5531 
116.8672 
117.1814 
117.4956 


1075.2101 
10810299 
1U86.8654 
1092.7166 
1098.5835 


40.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


125.6637 
125 9779 
126.2920 
126.6062 
126.9203 


1256.6371 

1262.9281 
1269.2348 
1275.5573 
1281.8955 


.5 
6 

.7 

.8 

i .9 


117.8097 
118.1239 
118 4380 
118.7583 
119.0664 


1104.4662 
1110.3645 
1116 2786 
1122.2083 
1128.1538 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


127.2345 

127.5487 
127.8628 
128.1770 
128.4911 


1288.2493 
1294.6189 
1301.0042 
1307.4052 
1313.8219 


8.0 
.1 
.2 

i .3 
.4 


119 3805 
119.6947 
120.0088 
120.3230 
120.6372* 


1134.1149 
1140.0918 
1146.0844 
1152.0927 
1158 1167 


41.0 
.1 
2 

.'3 
.4 


128.8053 
129.1195 
129.4336 

129.7478 
130.0619 


1320.2543 
1326.7024 
1333.1663 
1339 6458 
1346.1410 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


120.9513 
121.2655 
121.5796 
121.8938 
122.2080 


1164.1564 
1170.2118 
1176.2830 
1182.3098 
1188.4724 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


130.3761 
130.6903 
131.0044 
131.3186 
131.6327 


1352.6520 

1359.1786 
1365.7210 
1372 2791 

1378.8529 


9.0 


122.5221 


1194.5906 


42.0 


131.9469 


1385.4424 



72 
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. \ 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diam. 


Ci renin. 


, Area. 


Diam. 

.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


Circum. 


Area. 


.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


132.2611 
132.5752 
132.8894 
133.2035 


1392.0476 
1398 6685 
1405.3051 
1411 9574 


141.6858 
142,0000 
142.3142 
142 6283 


1597.5077 
1604.5999 
1611 7077. 
1618.8313 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


133.5177 
133.8318 
134.1460 
134.4602 
134.7743 


1418.6254 
1425.7392 
1432.0086 
1438.7238 
1445.4546 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


142.9425 
143.2560 

143 5708 
143.8849 
144.1991 


1625.9705 
1633.1255 
1640.2962 

1647.4826 
1654.6847 


43.0 
.] 
.2 
.3 
.4 


135.0885 
135.4026 
135.7168 
136.0310 
136.3451 


1452 2012 
1458.9635 
1465.7415 
1472.5352 
1479.3446 


46.0 
.1 
.2 

4 


144.5133 
144.8274 
145.1410 
145.4557 
145.7099 


1661.9025 
1669 1316 
1676.3863 
1683.6502 
1690.9308 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


136.6593 
136.9734 
137.2876 
•137.6018 
137.9159 


1486.1697 
1493.0105 
1499.8670 
1506.7393 
1513 6272 


.5 
.6 

'8 
.9 


140.0841 
140 3982 
146.7124 
147.0265 
147.3407 


1698.2272 
1705.5392 
1712.8670 
1720.2105 
1727.569'; 


44.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


138.2301 
138.5442 
138 8584 
139.1726 
139.4867 


1520.5308 
1527.4502 
1534 3853 
1541.3360 
1548.3025 


47.0 
.1 
.2 
'3 
.4 


147.6550 
147.9690 
148.2832 
148.5973 
148.9115 


1734.9445 
1742.3351 
1749.7414 
1757,1635 
1764.6012 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.3 
.9 


139.8009 
140.1153 
140.4292 
140.7434 
141.0575 


1555.2847 
1562.2826 
1569 2962 
1576.3255 
1583.3706 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


149.2257 
149 5898 
149.8540 
150.1681 
150.4823 


1772.0546 

1779.5237 
1787.0086 
1794.5091 
1802.0254 


45.0 


141.3717 


1590.4313 


48.0 


150.7964 


1809.5574 



IS 

AREA'S AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

(CONTINUED.) 



151.1106 
151.4248 
151.7389 
152.0531 

152.3072 
152.0814 
152.9950 
153.3097 
153.0239 

153.9380 
154 2522 
154 5054 
154.8805 
155.1947 

155.5088 
155.8230 
150.1372 
1504513 
150 7055 

157.0790 
157.3938 
157.7080 
158 0221 
158.3303 

158.0504 
158 9010 
159.2787 
159,5929 
159.9071 

100.2212 



Area. 


Diam. 


1817.1050 
1824.0084 
1832.2475 
1839.8423 


.1 

' .2 

'.-6 

A 


1847.4528 
1855.0790 
1802.7210 
1870 3780 
1878.0519 


.5 
.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1885.7409 
1893.4457 
1901.1002 
1908.9024 
1910.0543 


52.0 
.1 
2 

'3 
.4 


1924.4218 
1932.2051 
1940.0042 
1947 8189 
1955.0493 


.5 
.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1903.4954 
1971 3572 
1979.2348 
1987.1280 
1995.0370 


53.0 
.1 
2 

'3 
.4 


2002.9017 
2010.9020 
2018.8581 
2020.8299 
2034 8104 


.5 
.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2042 8206 


54.0 



Ciicum. Area, 



100.5354 
100 8495 
101.1037 
101.4779 

101.7920 
102.1002 
102.4203 
102.7345 
103.0487 

103.3028 
103.0770 
103.9911 
104 3053 

104 6195 

104.9330 

105 2479 
105.5019 
105 8701 
100.1903 

100 5044 
100 8180 
107.1327 
107.4409 
107.7010 

108.0752 
108 3894 
108.7035 
109.0177 
109.3318 



2050.8395 

2058.8742 
20C0.9245 
2074 9905 

2083.0723 
2091.1097 
2099.2829 
2107.4118 
2115.5503 

2123.7100 
2131.8920 
2140.0843 
2148.2917 
2150.5149 

2104.7537 
2173.0082 
2181 2785 
2189 5044 
2197.8001 

2200.1834 
2214.5105 
2222.8053 
2231.2298 
2239.0100 

2248.0059 
2250 4175 
2264.8448 
2273.2879 
2281.7406 

2290.2210 







74 






AREAS AND 


CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES^ 






(CONTl 


[NUED.] 






Diam. 

• 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


169.9609 
170 2743 

170.5885 
170 9026 


2298.7112 
2307.2171 
2315.7386 
2324 2759 


.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


179.3849 
179.6991 
180.0133 
180.3274 


2560. 720( 

2569.697; 
2578 6891 
2587. 698r 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


171.2168 
171.5310 
171 8^51 
172.1593 
172.4735 


2332.8289 
2341 3976 
2349 9820 
2358.5821 
2367.1979 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


180.6416 
180.9557 
181.2699 

181.5841 
181.8982 


2596.722', 
2605 762t, 
2614 818.^ 
2623.889'. 
2632 9761 


55.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


172,7876 
173.1017 
173.4159 
173.7301 
174.0442 


2375.8294 
2384.4767 
2393.1396 
2401.8183 
2410.5126 


58.0 
.1 
2 

'.3 

.4 


182.2124 
182.5265 
182 8407 
183.1549 
183.4690 


2641. 079i, 
2651.197': 
2660.332 
2669.482', 

2678.647'! 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


174.3584 
174.6726 
174.9867 
175.3009 
175.6150 


2419.2227 
2427 9485 
2436.6899 
2445.4471 
2454.2200 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


183.7832 
184.0973 
184.4115 
184.7256 
185.0398 


2687.828'' 
2697.025" 

2706.2381 
2715467': 

2724.7111 


56.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


175.9292 
176.2433 
176.5575 

176.8717 

177.1858 


2463.0086 
2471.8130 
2480.6330 

2489.4687 
2498 3201 


59.0 
.1 
.2 
'3 
.4 


185.3540 
185.6681 
185.9823 
186.2964 
186.6106 


2733 971, 
2743.246' 
2752.537 
2761.844 
2771.167 


.5 
.6 

.7 
8 
.9 


177-5000 
177 8141 
17g 1283 
178.4425 
178.7566 


2507.1873 
2516.0701 
2524.9687 
2533 8830 
2542.8129 


.5 
.6 

. 7 
.8 
.9 


186 9248 

187.2389 
187.5531 
187.8672 
188.1814 


2780.505 
2789.859 
2799.229 
2808.615 
2808.016 


57.0 


179.0808 


2051.7586 


60.0 


188.4956 


2827.433, 









75 






AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF C 


IRCLES. 




(CONTINUED.) 






iim. 

.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


Ci renin. 


Area. 


Diain. 


Cireum. 


Area. 


188.8097 
189.1239 
189.4380 
189.7522 


2836.8660 
2846 3144 

2855.7784 
2865.2582 


.1 
.2 

1 .3 
.4 


198 2345 
198.5487 
198.8628 

199 1770 


3127.1492 
3137.0688 
3147.0040 
3156.9550 


!.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


190.0(564 
190.3805 
190.6947 
191.0088 
191.3230 


2874.7536 
2884.2648 
2893.7917 
2903.3343 
2912.8926 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


199.4911 
199.8053 
200.1195 
200.4336 
200.7478 


3166.9217 
3176.9043 
3186.9023 
3196 9161 
3206.9456 


.0 
.1 
.2 
,.3 
.4 


191.6372 

191 9513 

192 2655 
192.5796 
192.8938 


2922.^666 
2932.0563 
2941.6617 
2951.2828 
2960 9197 


64.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


201 0620 
201.3761 
201.6902 
202.0044 
202.3186 


3216.9909 
3227.0518 
3237.1285 
3247.2222 
3257.3289 


' .5 
I .6 

•7 

'.8 

.9 


193.2079 
193.5221 
193,8363 
194.1504 
194.4646 


2970.5722 
2980 2405 
2989.9244 
2999.6241 
3009 3395 


.5 
.6 

'8 
.9 


202.6327 
202.9469 
203.2610 
203.5752 
203.8894 


3267.4527 
3277.5922 

3287.7474 
3297 9183 
3308,1049 


M 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


194.7787 
195 0929 
195 4071 
195 7212 
196.0354 


3019.0705 
3028.8173 
3038.5798 
3048.3580 
3058 1520 


65.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


204 2035 
204 5176 
204.8318 
205.1460 
205.4602 


3318.3072 
3328 5253 
3338.7590 
3349.0085 
3359.2736 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


196 349r, 
196 6337 

196 9779 

197 2920 
197.6062 


3067.9616 
3077 7869 
31187.6279 
305)7.4847 
3107 3571 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


205.7743 
206.0885 
206.4026 
206.7168 
207 3010 


3369.5545 
3379.8510 
3390.1633 
3400.4913 
3410.8350 


3.0 


197.9203 


3117.2463 


66.0 


207.3451 


3421.1944 







76 






AREAS AND 


CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLEsI 






(CONTINUED.] 






Diani. 


Ciiciini. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circiim. 


Area. 


.1 

.2 
.3 
.4 


207.6593 
207.9734 

298.2876 
208.6017 


3431.5695 
3441 9603 
3452.3669 
3462.7891 


.1 

2 

.3 

A 


217.0841 
217.3982 
217.7124 
218.0265 


3750.127'i 
3760.989; 

3771.866:1 

3782.760:i 


.5 
.C) 

.7 
.8 
.1) 


208.9159 
209.2301 
209.5442 

209.8584 
210.1725 


3473.2270 
3483.6807 
3194.1500 
3504 6351 
3515.1359 


.5 
.6 

.7 
8 
.9 


218.3407 
218.6548 
218 9690 
219.2S32 
219.S973 


3793.66911 
3804.594^1 
3815.535fi: 
3826. 491 ?i 
3837.4631^1 


67.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


210.4867 
210.8009 
211.1150 
211.4292 
211 7433 


3525.6524 
3536.1845 
3546.7324 
3557.2960 
3567 8754 


7(.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


219.9115 
220.2256 
220.5398 
220.8540 
221 1681 


3848.451( 
3859.454^1 
3870.473(!i 

3881.5084J 
3892.55901 


.5 
.(> 

.7 
.8 
.9 


212.0575 
212.3717 
212.6858 
213.0000 
213.3141 


3578.4704 
3589.0811 
3599.7075 
36 1() 3497 
3621.0075 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


221.4823 
221.7964 
222.1106 
222.4248 
222.7389 


3903 625s; 
3914.707^ 
3925.8041il 
3936.9182 
3948.0473: 


68.0 
.1 

• .2 
.3 
.4 


213 6283 
213,9425 
214.2566 
214.5708 
214.8849 


3631.6811 
3642.3704 
3653.0754 
3663.7960 
3674.5324 


71.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


223.0531 
223.3672 
223 6814 
223.9956 
224.3097 


3959.1921 
3970 35261 

3981.5289 
3992.7208^ 
4003.9284 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


215.1991 
215.5133 
215.8274 
216.1416 
216.4556 


3685.2845 
3696.0523 
3706.8359 
3717.6351 
3728.4500 


5 
.6 

.8 
.9 


224.6239 

224.9380 
225.2522 
225.5664 

225.8805 


4015.1518^ 
4026.3908 
4037.6456 
4048.9160 
4060.2022 


9. 


216.7699 


3730.2807 


72.0 


226.1947 


4071.50411 



77 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diam. 


Circiim. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circiim. 


Area. 


A 
.3 
.3 
.4 


336.5088 
336 8330 
337.1371 
337.4513 


4083^317 
4091.4550 
4105 5040 
4116.8687 


.1 
2 

^3 

.4 


335.9336 

336.3478 
336.5610 
336.8761 


4420.6535 

4441.4580 
4453.3783 
4465.1143 


.5 
.6 

1 .7 
! .8 
: .9 


337.7655 

338.0796 
338.3938 
338.7079 
339.0331 


4138.3491 
4139.6453 
4151.0571 
4163.4846 
4173.9379 


.5 
.6 

. < 

.8 
.0 


337.1903 
337.5044 
337.8186 
338.1337 
338.4460 


4476.0650 
4488 8333 
4500.7163 
4513 6151 
4534.5396 


fS.O 
.1 
.3 

.3 

.4 


339.3363 
339.6504 
330 0646 
330.3787 
330.5030 


4185.3868 
4196 8615 
4308.3519 
4319.8579 
4331.3797 


76 
.1 
.3 
.3 
.4 


338.7610 
239.0753 
339.3894 
339.7035 
340.0177 


4536.4598 
4548.4057 
4560.3673 
4573.3446 

4584 3377 


.5 
.6 

. i 
.8 
.9 


330.0071 
331.3313 
331.5354 
331.8405 
333.1637 


4343 9173 
4354.4704 
4366.0304 
4377.6340 
4380.3343 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


340.3318 
340.6460 
340.9603 
341 3743 

341.5885 


4506.3464 
4608.3603 
4630.4110 
4632.4669 
4644.5384 


74.0 
.1 
.3 
.3 
.4 


3334779 
333.7930 
333.1063 
333.4303 
333.7345 


4300.8403 
4313 4713 
4334.1195 
4335.7837 
4347.4616 


77.0 

.'3 
.3 
.4 


341.0036 
343.3116 
343.5310 
343.8451 
343.1593 


4656.6357 

4668.7387 
4680 8474 
4693.9818 
4705.1319 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


334.0487 
334.3638 
334 6770 
334.0911 
335.3053 


4359.1563 
4370.8664 
4383.5034 
4304.3341 
4406.0916 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


843 4734 

343.7876 
344.1017 
344 4159 
344.7301 


4717.3977 
4739.4793 
4741.6765 
4753 8894 
4766.1181 


75.0 


335.6194 


4417.8647 


78.0 


345.0443 


4778 3634 



78 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

(CONTINUED.) 



Diam. 


Circnm. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Cii'cum. 


Area. 


.1 

2 

.3 
.4 


245.3584 
245.6725 
245.9867 
246.3009 


4790.6225 

4802.8988 
4815.1897 
4827.4969 


.1 
.2 
.8 
.4 


. 254.7832 
255.0973 
255.4115 
255.7256 


5165.7287 
5178.4757 
5191.2384 
5204.0168 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


246.6150 
246.9292 
247.2438 
247.5575 

247.8717 


4839.8198 

4852.1584 
4864.5128 

4876.8828 
4889.2685 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


256.0398 
256.8540 
256.6681 
256.9828 
257 2966 


5216.8110 
5229.6208 
5242.4463 

5255 2876 
5268.1446 


79.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


248.1858 
248.5000 
248.8141 
249.1283 
249.4425 


4901 .6699 

4914.0871 
4926.5199 
4988 9685 
4951 4328 


82.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


257.6106 
257.9247 
258.2389 
258.5531 

258.8672 


5281.0178 
5298 9056 
5306.8097 
5319.7295 
5832.6050 


.5 

.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


249.7566 
250.0708 
250 3850 
250.6991 
251.0133 


4968.9127 
4976.4084 
4988.9198 
5001.4469 
5013.9897 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


259.1814 
259 4956 
259.8097 
260.1239 
260.4380 


5345.6162 

5358 5832 
5371.5658 
5384.5641 

5897.5782 


80.0 
.1 
.2 
^3 
.4 


251.3274 
251.6416 
251.9557 
252.2699 
252.5840 


5026.5482 
5039 1225 
5051.7.24 
5064.3180 
5076.9394 


83.0 
.1 
2 

^3 
.4 


260.7522 
261.0663 
261.3805 
261 6947 

262.0088 


5110 6079 
5423 6534 
5486 7146 
5449.7915 
5462.8840 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


252 8982 
253.2124 

253 5265 
253.8407 
254.1548 


5089 5764 
5102.2292 
5114.8977 
5127 5819 
5140 2818 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


262 3230 
262 6371 
262 9513 
263.2655 
263.5796 


5475 9923 
5489 1163 
5502 2561 
5515 4115 

5528.5826 


81.0 


254.4690 


5152.9978 


84.0 


263.8938 


5541.7694 









79 






AREAS AND 


CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 






(CONTINUED.) 






Diam. 

.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


264.2079 
264.5231 
264.8363 
265.1514 


5554.9720 
5568.1902 
5581 4242 
5594.6739 


.1 
.2 
"3 
.4 


273.6327 
273.9469 
274.2610 
274.5752 


5958 3525 
5972.0420 

5985.7472 
5999.4681 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


265.4646 

265.7787 
266.0929 
266.4071 
266.7212 


5607.9392 
5621.2203 
56345171 
5647.8296 
5661.1578 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


274.8894 
275.2035 

275.5177 
275.8318 
276.1460 


6013.2047 
6026.9570 
6040.7250 
6054.5088 
6068.3082 


85.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


267 0354 
267.3495 
267.6637 

267.9779 
268.2920 


5674.5017 
5687.8614 
5701.2367 
5714.6277 
5728.0345 


88.0 
.1 
2 
^3 
.4 


276.4602 
276.7743 

277.0885 
277.4026 

277.7168 


6082.1234 
6095.9542 
6109.8008 
6123 6631 
6137.5411 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


268.6062 
268.9203 
269.2345 
269.5486 
269.8628 


5741.4569 
5754 8951 
5768 3490 

5781.8185 
5795.3038 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


278.0309 
278.3451 
278.6593 
278.9740 

279.2876 


6151.4348 
6165.3442 
6179.2693 
61932101 
6207.1666 


86.0 
.1 
2 

^3 

.4 


270.1770 
270.-1911 
270.8053 
271.1194 
271.4336 


5808.8048 
5822.3215 
5835 8539 
5849.4020 
5862.9659 


89.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


279 6017 
279.9159 
280.2301 

280 5442 

280.8584 


6221.1389 
6235.1268 
6249.1304 
6263.1498 
6277.1849 


.5 
.6 

. 7 
.8 
.9 


271.7478 
272.0619 
272.3761 
272 6902 
273.0044 


5876.5454 
5890.1407 
5903.7516 
5917.3783 
5931.0206 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


281.1725 
281 4867 
281.8009 
282.1150 
282.4292 


6291,2356 
6305.3021 
63193843 
6333.4822 
6347.5958 


87.0 


273.3186 


5944.6787 


90.0 


282.7433 


6361.7251 



8U 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES, 

(CONTINUED ) 



Diain. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diiim. 


Ciieum. 


1 

Area. 


.1 
.2 
.8 
.4 


288.0575 

288.8717 
288.0858 
284.0000 


0875.8701 
0890.0809 
0404.2078 
0418.8995 


.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


292.4828 
292.7904 
298.1100 
298.4248 


0807. 525C 
0822.1509 
0830.8040 
0851. 40S0 


.5 

.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


284.8141 
284.0288 
284.9425 
285.2500 

285.5708 


0432.0078 
0440.8809 
0401.0701 
0475 8251 
0489.5958 


.5 
.0 

. 7 
.8 
.9 


293.7889 
294.0581 
294.3072 
294.0814 
294.9950 


0800.1471 
0880 8419 
0895.5524 
0910.2780 
0925.0205 


91.0 

.1 

:t 

A 


285.8849 
280.1991 
280.5188 
280.8274 
287.1410 


0508.8822 
0518.1848 
0532.5021 
0540.8850 
0501.1848 


94.0 
.1 
2 

.3 
.4 


295.8097 
295.0289 
295.9880 
290.2522 
290.5008 


0939. 77S2 
0954.5515 
0909.3100 
0984.145;; 
0998,905s 


.5 
.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


287.4557 

287.7099 
288.0840 
288.8982 
288.7124 


0575.5498 
0589.9804 
0004.8208 
0018.7888 
0088.1000 


.5 

.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


290.8805 
297.1947 
297.5088 
297.8280 
298.1871 


7013 8019 
7028.0588 
7043.5214 
7058.4047 
7073.3088 


92.0 

.1 
>) 

'8 

.4 


289.0205 
289.8407 
289.0548 
289.9090 
290.2882 


0047.0101 
0002.0092 
0070.5441 
0091.0847 
0705.5410 


95.0 
.1 
.2 
.8 
.4 


298.4518 
298.7055 
299.0790 
299.3988 
299.7079 


7088.2184 
7103.1488 
7118.1950 
7138.0508 
7148.0348 


.5 
.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


290.5978 
290 9115 
291.2250 
291.5898 
291.8540 


0720.0030 
0784. ()008 
0749 1542 
0703.7288 

0778.3082 


.5 
.0 

.7 
.8 
.9 


800.0221 
800.8808 
8U0.0504 
300.9040 
801.2787 


7103.0270 
7178 0300 
7198 0012 
7208.1010 
7223.1577 


93.0 


292.1081, 


0792.9087 


90. 


801.5929 


7238.2295 



\REAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

(CONTINUED.) 



m. 

2 
'/S 
A 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diaiii. 


C ileum. 


Area. 


301.9071 
302.2212 
302.5354 
302.8405 


7253.3170 

7268.4202 
7283.5391 

7298.6737 


.1 
.2 
^3 
.4 


311.3318 
311.6460 
311 9602 
312.2743 


7713.2461 

7728.8206 
7744.4107 
7760.0166 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


303.1637 
303.4779 
303.7920 
304.1062 
. 304.4203 


7313.8240 
7328.9901 
7344.1718 
7359.3693 
7374.5824 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


312.5885 
342.9026 
313.2168 
313.5309 
313.8451 


7775.6382 
7791.2754 

7806.9284 
7822.5971 

7838.2815 


.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


304.7345 
305.0486 
305.3628 
305.6770 
305.9911 


7389.8113 
7405.0559 
7420.3162 
7435.5922 
7450.8839 


100.0 


314.1600 


7853.9816 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


306.3053 
306.6194 
306.9336 
307.2478 
307.5619 


7466.1913 
7481.5144 
7496.8532 

7512.2078 
7527.5780 








.0 
.1 
2 

!3 
.4 


307 8761 
308.1902 
308.5044 
308.8186 
309.1327 


7542.9640 
7558.3656 
7573.7830 
7589.2161 
7604.6648 








.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


309,4469 
309 7610 
310.0752 
310.3894 
310.7035 


7620.1293 
7635,6095 
7651.1054 
7666.6170 
7682.1444 








.0 


311.0177 


7697.6893 









82 



BEARING VALUES OF 


PINS 


AT 15.000 LBS. 




PER SQUARE INCH. 




Diaiii. 

of 

Pin. 

Inch's 


Area of 

Pin in 

Sq. inches 


Bearing 

V.-ilue at 

15,000 lbs. 

Per sq. in. 


Diam. 

of 

Pin. 

Inch's 


Area of 

Pin in 

Sq. inches 


i 

BcHring 

Value a' 

15,000 1I)S 

Per sq. ii 


1 


.785 


11,775 


4 


12.57 


188,550 


H 


.994 


14,910 


4^ 


13.36 


200,4(10 


U 


1.227 


18,405 


4i 


14.19 


212,850 


If 


1.485 


22,275 


4f 


15.03 


225,450 


u 


1.767 


26,505 


H 


15.90 


238,500 


H 


2.074 


31,110 


4| 


16.80 


252,000 


If 


2.405 


36,075 


4i 


17.72 


265,800 


11 


2.761 


41,415 


H 


18.67 


280,050 


2 


3.142 


47,130 


5 


19.64 


294,6001 


2i 


3.547 


53,205 


H 


20.63 . 


309,450) 


2i 


3.976 


59,640 


5J 


21.65 


324,750 


n 


4.430 


66,450 


5| 


22.69 


340,350 


3i 


4 . 909 


53.635 


H 


23.76 


356,400 


2f 


5.412 


81,180 


51 


24.85 


372,750 


2f 


5.940 


89,100 


51 


25.97 


389,550 


21 


6.492 


97,380 


51 


27.11 


406,650 


3 


7.069 


106,035 


6 


28.27 


424,050 


3^ 


7.670 


115.050 


6i 


29.46 


441,900 


3i 


8.296 


124,440 


6i 


30.68 


460,200 


31 


8.946 


134,190 


6f 


31.92 


478,800 


3i 


9 . 621 


144,315 


H 


33.18 


497,700 


3f 


10.32 


154,800 


6f 


34.47 


517,050 


3f 


11.05 


165,750 


61 


35.79 


536,850 


31 


11.79 


176.850 


61 


37.12 


556,800 









83 








{ 


WEIGHT OF 


FLAT ROLLED 


METALS 


3 




PER 


SQUARE FOOT. 










(From Has well.) 






M 


Wrght. 

Iron. 

Pounds. 


2 5 c/5 

6hH~ 


Copper. 
Pounds. 


Lead. 
Pounds. 


Zinc. 
Pounds. 


Brass. 
Pounds. 


-A 


2.517 


2.346 


2.89 


3.691 


2.34 


2.685 


i 


5.035 


4 693 


5.781 


7.382 


4.68 


5.35 


A 


7.551 


7.039 


8 672 


11.074 


7.02 


8.025 


i 


10.07 


9.386 


11.562 


14.76« 


9.36 


10.7 


T6 


12.588 


11.733 


14.453 


18.456 


11.7 


13.375 


t 


15.106 


14.079 


17 344 


22.148 


14.04 


16.05 


7b 


17 623 


16.426 


20 234 


25.839 


16.34 


18.725 


i 


20.141 


18.773 


23.125 


29.530 


18.72 


21.4 


i^fi 


22 659 


21.119 


26.016 


33.222 




24.075 


f 


25.176 


23.446 


28 906 


26.913 




26.75 


TG 


27.694 


25.812 


31.797 


40.604 




29.425 


f 


30.211 


28.159 


34.688 


44 296 




32.1 


^i 


32 729 


30.505 


37.578 


47.987 






1 


35.247 


32.852 


40.469 


51.678 






15 
16 


37.764 


35.199 


43.359 


55 37 






1 


40.282 


37.545 


46.25 


59.061 







BREAKING STRAIN OF WROUGHT IRON CHAIN. 

The Maximum Breaking Strain is about 9 per cent 
Less tl^an this Table. 
(From Haswell ) 



Diaiiiater 
in Inches. 


Pounds. 


Dinineter 
in Inches. 


Pounds. 


3 
16 


2,464 


n 


44,800 


i 


3,920 


i 


51,520 


5 
IG 


6,720 


15 
16 


58,240 


f 


8.960 


1 


62,720 


76 


13,440 


u 


82,880 


i 


15,680 


If 


100,800 


9 
16 


22,400 


u 


120,960 


1 


26,880 


u 


143,360 


1 1 
16 


31,360 


If 


168,000 


f 


38,080 


If 


201,580 



84 



WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BALLS. 



Diam. in 


Volume in 


Weight in 


Inches. 


Cubic inches. 


Pounds. 


1 


.5235 


.1365 


H 


1.7671 


.4607 


2 


4.1887 


1.0768 


3i 


8.1812 


2.1328 


3 


14.1371 


3.6855 


3i 


22.4492 


5.8525 


4 


33.5103 


8.7361 


4i 


47.7129 


12.4387 


5 


65.4498 


17.0628 


5i 


87.1137 


22.7206 


6 


113 0973 


29.4845 


H 


143.7932 


37.4528 


7 


179.5943 


46.8203 


7* 


220.8932 


57.587 


8 


268.0825 


69.8892 


8i 


321.555 


83.8396 


9 


381.7034 


99.5103 


91 


448.9204 


117.0338 


10 


523.5987 


136.525 


11 


696.9098 


181.7648 


12 


904.7784 


235.8763 


33 


1150.346 


299.623 


14 


1436.754 


374.5629 


15 


1767.145 


460-.6959 


16 


2144.66 


559.1142 


17 


2572.44 


670.7168 


18 


3053.627 


796.5825 


19 


3591.363 


936.2708 


20 


4188.79 


1092.02 



85 



WEIGHT OF METALS. 

Per Cubic Foot and per Cubic Inch. 



|A.hi milium 

Brass 

Copper 

Zinc 

Brass Wire 

'iCopper, cast 

ICojiper, plate 

Ilron, cast 

Iron, heav.Y forging. 

Iron, plates 

Iron, wrought bars... 

Lead, cast 

Lead, rolled 

Mercury, G0« 

Steel, plates 

Steel, soft 

Tin. ., 

Zinc, 
Zinc, 
Gold, 



cast 

rolled 

cast, pure, 24c. . , 
Gold, pure, hammered. 

Platinum 

Silver 

Steel 



Per Cubic 


Per Cubic 


foot in lbs. 


inches in lbs 


162. 


.0937 


488.75 


.2829 


.67 




.33 




524.16 


.3033 


547.25 


.3179 


543.625 


.3167 


450.437 


.2607 


480. 


.2775 


450. 


.2604 


486.75 


2816 


709.5 


.4106 


711.75 


.4119 


848.7487 


.491174 


490. 


.28472 


489.56 


.28465 


455.687 


.2637 


428.812 


.2482 


449.437 


.2601 


1204. 


.6973 


12] 7. 


.7042 


1342. 


.7766 


655. 


.3790 


490. 


.2847 



Water, pure, at 60o F 62.5 

Wax, bees 60.5 

Zinc, or Spelter 43.5 



8(3 



WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCES. 

Per Cubic Foot. 



(Prom Haswell.) 






WeiRl 
inlbi 

Anthracite, solid 

Anthracite, broken loose f 

Anthracite, moderately shaken 5 

Anthracite, heaped bu , loose 

Ash, white, dry 

Asphaltum 8! 

Brick, pressed.. 15 

Brick, common hard 12 

Cement, loose 

Cement, Portland 

Cherry, dry 4j 

Chestnut, dry 

Clay, dry 12.| 

Coke, loose 

Coal, bituminous 81 

Ebony, dry 7 

Elm, dry. ! 3: 

Flint 16 

Glass 15' 

Granite 17'i 

Gvpsura 141 

Ice 5r 

Ivory Ill 

Lime, in small lumps 5.' 

Marble . 16! 

Oak, live, dry 5" 

Pine, white . 2 

Petroleum 5 

Rosi n 6' 

Salt, about 41 

Slate 17. 



87 





SHEET STEEL MEASUREMENTS 


At 


per Old Birmingham Guage, in Tliousaudtlis ol 


" an Inch. 






(From Ilaswell ) 






St 

^'No. of 
Wii-e 
Ga'cre 


Size of each 

No. in Dec. 

Parts of 

an Inch. 

Birm. W. G 


No. of 
Wire 

Ga'ge. 


Size of each 

No. in Dec. 

Parts of 

an Inch. 

Birm. W. G. 


No. of 
Wire 
Gii'ge. 


Size of each 

^'o. in Dec. 

Parts of 

an Inch. 

Birm. W. G. 


0000 


.454 


10 


.134 


23 


.025 


, 000 


.425 


n 


.120 


24 


.022 


00 


.380 


12 


.100 


25 


.020 





.340 


13 


.095 


26 


.018 


1 


.300 


14 


.083 


27 


.016 


2 


.284 


15 


.072 


28 


.014 


8 


.250 


16 


.065 


29 


.013 


4 


.238 


17 


.058 


30 


.012 


5 


.220 


18 


.049 


31 


.010 


6 


.203 


19 


.042 


32 


.009 


7 


.180 


20 


.035 


33 


.008 


8 


.165 


21 


.032 


34 


.007 


y 


.148 


22 


.028 


35 


.005 











88 






i 




UPSET SCREW ENDS 


FOR 


ROUND 1 






AND SQUARE BARS. 










Standard Proportions ( 


3f Keystone Bridge Co. 




ROUND BARS. 


SQUARE BARS. 1 


oj 


+-> r-i 


«'o' 


. I«^- ■ 


^B 


sp 


03 


MSO'S 


as ^a 




8. 




4-j >:* 0) ^ 






03 
HI 






o ^ ^ 


C/J O =« 


.fl a 


-!« 2: a. 


O m 


CAJ^ M 


H « 


-="W 2ij 




III 


111 




. & a. 


ill 




t^ "2 a> t 


i 


f 


.620 


10 


54 


f 


.620 


10 


21 1 


51 
16 


f 


.620 


10 


21 


1 


.731 


9 


33 ! 


1 


1 


.731 


9 


37 


1 


.837 


8 


41 } 


11 

1 a 


1 


.887 


8 


48 


1 


.837 


8 


17 


i 


1 


.837 


8 


25 


H 


.940 


7 


23 I 


13 
1 6 


H 


.940 


7 


34 


U 


1.065 


7 


35 


1 


U 


1 .065 


7 


48 


U 


1.160 


6 


38 


n 


H 


1.065 


7 


29 


If 


1.160 


6 


20 


1 


U 


1.160 


6 


35 


u 


1.284 


6 


29 


lA 


If 


1.160 


6 


19 


u 


1 389 


5* 


34 


U 


H 


128-1 


6 


30 


n 


1 .389 


5i 


20 


1 1'e 


H 


1.284 


6 


17 


If 


1.490 


5 


24 


U 


If 


1.389 


•H 


23 


11 


1.615 


5 


31 


li\^ 


If 


1.490 


5 


^9 


u 


1.615 


4i 


19 


u 


If 


1.615 


5 


18 


2 


1.712 


4i 


22 


l/« 


n 


1.712 


5 


26 


2i 


1.837 


4i 


28 


u 


2 


1.712 


4^1 30 


2i 


1.837 


4^ 


18 


u% 


2 


1.837 


4i' 20 


2i 


1.962 


4i 


24 


u 


k 


1.837 


U 28 


2t 


2 087 


4i 


30 


Mr^ 


2i 


1.962 


4^! 


18 


2f 


2.087 


4 


20 


U 


3i 


1.962 


4i 


26 


2i 


2.175 


4 


21 


lii 


Si 


2.087 


4i 17 


21 


2.330 


4 


26 


1| 


3t 


2.175 


4i' 24 


2f 


2 300 


4 


18 


1}| 


2i 


2.175 


4 


26 


2f 


2.425 


4 


23 


2 


2t 


2.300 


4 


18 


2| 


2.550 


4 


28 


iV 


2f 


f:.300 


4 


24 


2| 


2.550 


4 


20 


i 


21 


2.375 


4 


17 


3 


2.629 


3i 


20 


1"6 


2f 


2.425 


4 


23 


3i 


2.754 


8i 


24 



89 



UPSET SCREW ENDS FOR ROUND AND 
SQUARE BARS. 

Standard Proportions of Keystone Bridge Company. 



ROUND BARS. 





^.2 

fl fe s 


si-- 


03 


cent of Ex. 
eff'tivearea 

Screw end 
er-bar. 


i^ 


03 fii o 

S^5 


|«.a 


t- 


I^^s 


1-^. 


21 


2.550 


4 


22 


■t 


3 


3.629 


3i 


23 


/« 


8i 


2.754 


3i 


28 


i 


3^ 


2.754 


3i 


21 


■1^ 


3i 


2.879 


3i 


26 


''^ 


3i 


2.879 


3.^ 


20 


!U 


m 


3.004 


3^ 


25 


!f 


m 


3.004 


3i 


19 


'H 


3i 


3.100 


3i 


22 


n 


3t 


3.225 


3^ 


26 


m 


31 


3.225 


3i 


21 


\ 


3f 


3.317 


3 


22 


H 


3^ 


3.442 


3 


21 


U 


4 


3.567 


3 


20 


n 


4i 


3.692 


3 


20 


H 


4i 


3.798 


2^ 


18 


H 


4i 


4.028 


2^ 


23 


Jf 


4^ 


4.153 


2f 


23 


U 


4f 


4.255 


21 


31 



SQUARE BARS. 






o 

a S' 



3i 
3f 

3| 

3* 

3f 

3f 

3i 

3i 

31 

4 

4i 

4i 
4f 
4i 






03 q 



3.879 
3.004 
3.004 
3.100 
3.225 
3.225 
3 317 
3.442 
3 442 
3.56: 
3.692 

3.692 
3.923 

4.038 
4.153 



3i 

3i 

3i 

3i 

3i 

3J 

3 

3 

3 






(DO 



22 
36 
19 
31 
34 
19 
30 
33 
18 
31 
34 

19 
34 
21 
19 



As upsetting reduces the strength of iron, bars having the same 
aiameter at root of thread as that of the bar, invariably break in the 
screw end when tested to destiuction. without developing the full 
stregnth of the bar. It is therefore necessary to make up for this loss 
in strength by an excess of metal in upset "screw end over that in the 
bar The above table is the result of numerous tests on finished bars 
made at the Keystone Bridge Company's works in Pittsburgh, and 
?ives proportions that will cause the bar to break in the body in prefer- 
ence to the upset end. The screw threads in the above table are the 
Franklin Institute standard. To make one upset end for 5 inch length 
of thread allow 6 inches of rod additional. 









90 








SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF HOT 


PRESSED 




SQl 

sizes are the usual M 


JARE N 


UTS. 

;rs', not the Franklin 


Institut 
ut. Th 


The 


auufacture 


Standard. Both 


weights and sizes are for the ui 


finished i 


weights 


are calculated, one cubic foot weighing 480 poimds. 




Size of 


Weight of 


Rough 


Thickness 


Side of 


Diagonal. 


No. of Nut' 


Bolt. 


100 lbs. 


Hole. 


of Nut. 


Square. 


in 100 Ibs^ 


i 


1.5 


#2 


i 


i 


.71 


6800 . 


r. 


3.9 


A 


A 


f 


.88 


3480 


t 


49 


U 


t 


f 


1.06 


2050 


^^6 


7.7 


n 


7 
16 


f 


1.24 


1290 


i 


8.6 


7s 


i 


8 


1.24 


1170 


i 


11.8 


7 
16 


i 




1.41 


850 : 


h 


16.7 


i 


/e 


H 


1 59 


600 


t 


17.7 


1% 


f 


H 


1.59 


570 


1 


22.8 


9 

] 6 


f 


u- 


1.77 


440 


f 


32.3 


u 


f 


if 


1.94 


310 


f 


39.8 


u 


f 


U 


2.12 


251 


1 


53. 


II 


f 


If 


230 


190 


1 


63. 


II 


f 


If 


2.47 


159 t 




68. 


f 


1 


If 


2.47 


146 , 




94. 


f 


1 


2 


2.83 


106 


H 


103. 


ii 


H 


2 


2 83 


97 1 


H 


137. 


il 


U 


2i 


3.18 


73 1 


U 


145. 


Ws 


u 


2i 


3.18 


69 1 


H 


186. 


Ix^. 


u 


2i 


3.54 


54 ; 


If 


247. 


h% 


If 


2f 


3 89 


41 


H 


319. 


h% 


H 


3 


4.24 


31.^1 


If 


400. 


I/g 


If 


3i 


4.60 


24. S 


If 


500. 


Ix^. 


If 


3i 


4.95 


19.1 


If 


620. 


lU 


If 


3i 


5.30 


16. i 


2 


750. 


m 


2 


4 


5.66 


13. < 


2i 


780. 


u 


2f 


4 


5.66 


12. ^ 


2i 


930. 


2 


2i 


4i 


6.01 


10.: 


21 


960. 


2i 


2f 


4i 


6.01 


10.^ 


2i 


1130. 


2i 


2i 


4A 


0.36 


8.1! 


2f 


1370. 


2x'« 


2f 


4f 


6 72 


7.^i 


3 


1610. 


'*^ 1 6 


3 


5 


7.07 


6.^1 


3i 


2110. 


2f;1 


3i 


5i 


7.78 


4.7. 


3i 


2750. 


2i 


3i 


6 


8.49 


3.( 



SIZES ANDL WEIGHTS rOF HOT PRESSED 
HEXAGON NUTS. 



The sizes are the usual manufacturers' ; not the Franklin Institute 
taudard. Both weights and sizes are for the unfinished nut. The 
■eights are calculated, one cubic foot weighing 480 pounds. 



]'m of 


Weight of 


Rough 


Thickness 


Short 


Long 


No. of Nuts 


Boit. 


100 Nuts. 


Hole. 


of Nut. 


Diameter. 


Liameter. 


in 100 lbs. 


i 


1.3 


i. 


i 


i 


.58 


8000 


i^e 


24 


A 


5 

1 6 


t 


.72 


4170 


i 


4.1 


H 


f 


f 


.87 


2410 


IS 


0-8 


1 3 

3 2 


7 
16 


1 


l.Ol 


1460 . 


i 


7.1 


7g 


i 


1 


1.01 


1410 


i 


9.8 


7 

i 6 


i 




1.15 


1020 


i% 


140 


i 


9 
T6 


l."? 


1 30 


710 




14.7 


9 
1 6 


1 


1^ 


1.30 


680 




191 


9 
1 6 


1 


u 


1.44 


520 




22 9 


1% 


f 


u 


1.44 


440 


i 


27.2 


II 


f 


It 


1.59 


370 


1 


39. 


H 


1 
8 


H 


1.73 


256 




44. 


M 


1 


lA 


1.88 


226 


1 


50. 


15 


1 "* 


1 •- 


1.88 


198 


i' 


57. 


i 


1 


If 


2.02 


176 


1 


64. 


i 


H 


If 


2.02 


156 


^\ 


96. 


1.5 
1 « 


U 


2 


2.31 


104 


M 


134. 


11 

16 


If 


21 


2.60 


75 


1: 


180. 


13 
16 


U 


2i 


2.89 


56 


T. 


235. 


1 5 
16 


If 


2f 


3.18 


42 


1' 


300. 


1/6 


If 


3 


3.46 


33.4 


^'■} 


370. 


iH 


u 


3i 


3.75 


16.7 


1; 


460. 


lU 


2 


3i 


4.04 


21.5 


o 


450. 


n% 


2 


3i 


4.04 


22.4 


'-J I 


560. 


u 


2i- 


3f 


4.33 


18.0 


O 1 


560. 


2 


2i 


3f 


4.33 


17.7 


'2L' 


680. 


2i 


2S 


4 


4.62 


14.7 


'J .', 


810. 


2i 


2i 


4i 


4.91 


12.3 




980. 


2/6 


2f 


4* 


5.20 


10.2 


o 


1150. 


2}^, 


3 


4f 


5.48 


8.7 


o ' 


1340. 


21s 


3i 


5 


5.77 


7.5 


31 


1580. 


3i 


3i 


5i 


6.06 


6.3 



92 



BOLTS, HEADS, NUTS AND THREAD IN PROPORTION. 

Unfinished bolt heads and nuts in proportior 
of same should be one and one-half times the di 
ameter of bolt, to which should be added yi of ar 
inch. But one and one-half times the diametei 
does without the addition of y's of an inch; if noi 
machine finish the }i inch is calculated for finish. 

The depth of head, one half of its width. 
The depth of nut same as diameter of bolt. 



Screw Threads as determined and recommended by Com 
mittee of Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, 1864. 

NUMBER OF THREADS PER INCH. 



as 



o 


i- 


O 


i 


o 


^ 


-O . 


2 


'O • 


0) 


-c • 


a> 


?,^ 


o . 


^A 


o . 


03 J3 


o • 




■A 


II 


•A 


is 


•.a 


^<D 


a H 


&Ha> 


as 


Hoj 


a H 


■■Q 


s 3 


•A 


S s 


• J3 


S i^! 


053 




o« 




ot2 




'^ 


5^ 


% 


5 


;?; 


5^ 


20 


1 


8 


2i 


4i 


4^ 


18 


H 


7 


21 . 


4 


41 


16 


U 


7 


2f 


4 


5 


14 


If 


6 


3 


3i 


5J 


13 


U 


G 


3i 


3i 


5^ 


12 


If 


5^ 


,3i 


3i 


5f 


11 


If 


5 


31 


3 


6 


10 


n 


5 


4 


3 




9 


2 


4i 


4i 


2| 





0) o 



3| 
2i 
2i 

2| 
'^1 









93 








SPIKES. NAILS AND 


TACKS. 








Standard Steel ^^'ire Nails. 








COMMON. 


FINISHING. 


Sizes 


Length, 
in Inches 








Diameter 


No. per 


Diameter 


No. per 






in(!hes. 


Pouud. 


Inches. 


Pound. 


2(1 


1 


.0524 


1060 


.0453 


1558 


3d 


li 


.0588 


640 


.0508 


913 


4d 


U 


.0720 


380 


.0508 


761 


5d 


If 


.0764 


275 


.0571 


500 


6d 


2 


.0808 


210 


.0641 


350 


7d 


2i 


.0858 


160 


.0641 


315 


8d 


2i 


.0935 


115 


.0720 


214 


9d 


3f 


.0963 


93 


.0720 


195 


10 d 


3 


.1082 


77 


.0808 


137 


12 d 


3+ 


.1144 


60 


.0808 


127 


1() d 


3i 


.1285 


48 


.0907 


90 


20 d 


4 


.1620 


31 


.1019 


62 


30 d 


U 


.1891 


22 






40 d 


5 


.2043 


17 






50 d 


5i 


.2294 


13 






60 d 


6 1 


.2576 


11 







TACKS. 





J2 










Title. 


&^ 


No. per 


Title. 


Length. 


No. per 


oz. 


J-- 


Pound. 


oz. 


Inch. 


Pound. 


1 


X 


16000 


4 


_7_ 


4000 


U 


3 


10666 


6 





2666 


2 


y 


8000 


8 


•i 


2000 


2i 


16 


6400 


10 


1 1 
1 6 


1600 


3 


f 


5333 


12 


f 


1333 



















94 I 




SPIKES, NAILS AND TACKS. 




STEEL WIRE SPIKES . 


COMMON IRON NAILS. 


^ 




1 


-u 












be 


Diameter, 
inches. 


No. per 
pound. 


Sizes. 


Length. 


No. pe 
pound 


3 


.1620 


41 


2(1 


1 


800 


3i 


.1819 


30 


3(1 


U 


400 


4 


.2043 


23 


4(1 


H 


300 i 


4* 


.2294 


17 


5(1 


If 


200 


5 


.2576 


13 


6(1 


2 


150 


5i 


.2893 


11 


7(1 


2i 


120 


6 


.2893 


10 


8(1 


2i 


85 


6i 


.2249 


7i 


9(1 


2f 


75 1 


7 


.2249 


7 


10(1 


3 


60 


8 


.3648 


5 


12(1 


3i 


50 


9 


.3684 


H 


16(1 


3i 


40 , 








20(1 


4 


20 1 








30(1 


4i 


16 








40(1 


5 


14 








50(1 


5i 


11 








60(1 


6 8 




TACKS. 




Title. 


Length. 


Number 




oz. 


inch. 


per pound. 




14 


13 

i 6 


1143 




16 


1 

8 


1000 




18 


n 


888 




20 


1 


800 




22 


li^G 


727 




24 


li 


666 

















95 



WROUGHT SPIKES. 

Number to a Keg of 150 Pounds. 



Length, 
inch. 


i Inch. 

No. 


/elnch. 

No. 


1 Inch. 

No. 


ilnch. 
No. 


'6 

3i 

4 

4i 

5 

6 


2250 
1890 
1050 
1464 
1380 
1292 






1161 


1208 

1135 

1004 

930 

808 












■742 
570 









Length. 
Inch. 


,%Inch. 

No. 


1 Inch. 

No. 


/g Inch. 

No. 


i Inch. 

No. 


7 


662 


482 


445 


306 


8 


635 


455 


384 


256 


9 


573 


424 


300 


240 


10 





391 


270 


222 


11 






249 
236 


203 


12 






180 











96 

WROUGHT IRON STEAM, GAS AND WATER PIPE; 

Table ot Standard Dimensions 



AS MANUFACTURED BY NATIONAL TUBE WORKS CO. 



- a; 

o 

"a '^ 

.2 "3 
2 S 

O <v 


SI 

o 

•3 2 
11 


Thickness. 
Inches. 


1 

Length of Pipe 
containing 1 
Cubic Foot. 


Nom'l Weight 
1 per Foot. 


1 

No. of Threads 

per Inch of 

Screw. 


i 


.405 


.068 


2513. 


.241 


27 1 


i 


.54 


.088 


1383.3 


.42 


18 


1 


.675 


.091 


751.2 


.559 


18 


1 


.84 


.109 


472.4 


.837 


14 


■ f 


1.05 


.113 


270. 


1 115 


14 


1 


1.315 


.134 


166.9 


1.668 


IH 


u 


1.60 


.14 


96.25 


2.244 


lU 


H 


1.9 


.145 


70.66 


2.678 


\n 


3 


2.375 


.154 


42.91 


3.609 


Hi 


3| 


2.875 


.204 


30.1 


5.739 


8 


3 


3.5 


.217 


19.5 


7.536 


8 


3i 


4.0 


.226 


14.57 


9.001 


8 


4 


4.5 


.237 


11.31 


10.665 


8 


4i 


5. 


.246 


9.02 


12.34 


8 


5 


5.63 


.259 


7.2 , 


14 502 


8 


6 


6.625 


.28 


4.98 


18,762 


8 


7 


7.625 


.301 


3.72 


23.271 


8 


8 


8.625 


.322 


2.88 


28 177 


8 


9 


9.625 


344 


2.29 


33.701 


8 


10 


1075 


.366 


1.82 


40.065 


8 



EXPLANATION OF TABLES ON TENSILE STRENGTH. 

What size of rod is required to carry a load, of 
15,000 lbs.; tensile strain 60,000; safe load i of strain? 
J. Example: 45,000 x 3 = 135,000; divided hv 60,000 = 
2.25 sq. in., required area. Referring to table of area 
of square and round bars, we find in area of square 
2.25 sq. in. = H, answer. Area of round nearest to 
2.25 sq. in. is If in. diameter. 

How much will 1\ in. rod carry? 

Area of IJ in. round is 1.22 sq. in. 

Example: 1.22x60,000 = 73,200. 

Ans.: Safe load i of 73,200 = 24.400 lbs. 

How much will a 2 inch hook carry? 

Ans.: See table on experiments on tensile strength; 
one s(j[uare inch will carry about 10,000 lbs.; area of 2 
inch round is 3.1416 x 10,000 = 31.416 lbs. 

What sized hook will carry 80,000 lbs.? 

To tin d the area, divide the weight what 1 scj. in. 
carries into the weight to be carried, 10,000^-80,000 = 
8 sq. in., answer. 

In area of round bars, column of area and line of 
3i in. is nearest to 8 in. area. 

ILLI'STKATION OF TABLES OF WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND 
ROUND IRON. 

What is the weight of a bar of iron 3| in. I'ound by 
12 ft. 4 in. long? In column of weights of round and 
line of 3| round, we find 29.82 lbs. per one foot long. 
Answer: 12 ft. x 20.82 lbs. =357 84 
4 in. is i ft. of 29.80 =^9^04 

367.78 lbs. 
How many feet of 34^ in. by 3i in. square iron will 
weigh 326 64 lbs.? 

Ans.: In column of weight of square and inline 
of 34^ square we find the weight 40 83 lbs. per one foot 
long. Divide 40.83 into 326.64 = 8 ft. 

ILLUSTRATION OF TABLE OF CIRCUMFERENCE. 

How long a bar will be required to make a bend of 
3 in. X 3 in. square and 4.5 ft in diamater. 

Rule: Add the thickness of the iron to the diam- 
etei- of the ring required and multiplj^ by 3.1416. 

Example: 3 in. ecjuals .25 of afoot -\- 4.5 feet =4.75 



98 

feet. In column of circumference and line of 4.8 ft., 
which is the nearest to 4.75, we lind circiimfer6nce 
18.2213 feet, answer. Allow for weld. 

ILLUSTRATION OF TABLE OP AREA. 

How many feet of 4 in. round can be made of a 
bar 8 in. by 8 in. by 2 ft. long? 

Example: In column of area of square and in line 
of 8 in. will be found 64 in. area; 04 in. x 12 in. = 778 
in. volume X 2 ft. = 1556 in. volume. In column of 
area of round and line of 4 in. will be found 12.566 
in. area; 12.566 in. area x 12 in. = 150.792 in., volume 
of 1 ft. long 1556 in. -^- 150.792 in. = 10.31 ft., answer. 

How many feet of 6 in. by 6 in. will make a bar 7 
in. bv 4 in. at one end, and 7 in. by 2 in. at the otheri 
end, 12 feet long. 

Example: 7 in. x 4 in. = 28 in, area at one end, 
and 7 in. x 2 in. = 14 in area. 28 in. x 14 in = 42 — ^ 
2 == 21 in.; mean area 21 in. x 12 in. = 252 in. volumei 
of 1 ft. long; 252 in. x 12 ft. = 8024 in. volume of thei 
whole bar. In column of area and in line of 6 in. sq. 
will be found 36 in. area; 36 in. x 12 in. = 432 in. vol- 
ume of 1 ft. long; 3024 ^-432 = 7 ft. Answer. 

ILLUSTRATION OF TABLES OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 

What is the weight of a flat rolled bar 5 in x 1 Jg in- 
in section? 

Answer: In the column for 5 in. width, and in the 
line for l/g in. thickness, will be found the value, 17.71, 
ivhich is the weight desired. 

What thickness of 44^ in. bar will be re(juired toi 
give an area of 5.3 square inches. 

Answer: In the column for 4| in. width will be 
found 5.34, which is the area nearest to that required; 
the corresponding thickness being Ij^g in. the bar 
should be ii m. by Ij^g. 



I 



99 

TENSILE STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL. 

(From Ha swell.) 

In order to select intelligently the materials 
for structures and work for industrial purposes, 
as well 'as for comparing the values of different 
materials, it is of great importance to know all 
their "properties," ultimate strength, limits of 
elasticity, and ductilit}^ expressed in force and 
dimensions. 

Tensile strength is the resistance of the fibers 
or particles of a body to separation. It is there- 
fore proportioned to their number or to the area 
of its transverse sections. 

WEIGHT OR POWER REQUIRED TO TEAR ASUNDER 
ONE SQUARE INCH. 

R)S. 

Iron, cast. Low Moor No. 2 14,076 

Iron, Clyde No. 1 16,125 

Iron, Clyde Nos. 2 and 3 23,468 

Iron, Calder No. 1 13,735 

Iron, Stirling mean 25,764 

Iron, mean of American 31,829 

Iron, mean of English 19,484 

Iron, green wood, American 45,970 

Iron, gun metal, mean 37,232 

Iron, wronght iron wire 103,000 

Iron, best 8wedi.sli bar 72.000 

Iron, Russian bar 59,500 

Iron, English bar 56,000 

Iron, rivets, American 53,300 

Iron, bolts, American 52,250 

Iron, hammered 53,913 

Iron, crank shaft 44,750 

Iron, boiler plates, American 48,000 to 62,000 

Iron, platen, English mean 51,000 

Iron, lengthwise 53,800 

Iron, crosswise 48,800 

Iron, inferior bar 30,000 

Iron, wire, American 73,690 

Irod, wire, 16 diam 80,000 

Iron, scrap 53,400 



100 

Steel, cast, maximum 142,000 

Steel, cast, mean 88,657 

Steel, cast, blistered soft 133,000 

Steel, shear 124,000 

Steel, puddled, extreme 173,817 

Steel, puddled, lime iron : . 121,408 

Steel, plates, lengthwise 96,300 

Steel, plates, crosswise 93,700 

Steel, razor 150,000 

Lake Superior and Iron Mountain charcoal bloom 
iron has resisted 90,000 lbs. 

Reduced from the experiments of U. S. Ordnance 
Department, Barton, Rennie, Stevenson, Hodgkinson, 
Fairbain, Pasley and Hatfield. 



Results of Experiments on Tensile Strength of Wrought' 
Iron Tie Rods Common English I^q Diam. 

(From Ilaswell.) 

DESCRIPTION OF CONNECTIONS. 

lbs. 
Semi-circular hook fitted to acircular welded ej'e. 14,000 

Two semi. circular hooks fitted together 16,220 

Right angled hook fitted into a cylindrical e^^e. . .27,120 
Two links or welded eyes connected together. . . .48,160 
Straight rod without any connection 56,000 

Iron bars when cold rolled are materially stronger 
as when only hot rolled, the difference being in some 
cases as great as 3 to 2. 

The tensile strength of steel increases by reheating 
and rolling up to the second operation, but decreases 
after that. 



Crushing Strengh of Iron as Reduced to a Uniform 
Measure of 1 Square Inch. 

ft)S. 

Psrims, American gun metal, cast 174,803 

American gun metal, mean 129,000 

English Low Moor No. 1 62,450 

English Low Moor No. 2 92,330 

English Clyde No. 3 106,039 

Sterling, mean of all 122,396 



101 

Extreme 134,400 

Wrought iron, American 127,720 

Mean 83,500 

Enc^lish mean from 40,000 to 65,200 

Caststeel 295,000 



FULCRUM AND LEVER. 

Power is a compound of weight or force and 
velocit}^; it cannot be increased by mechanicaf 
skill or means. 

The powers are three in number, viz: Lever, 
inclined plane, and pulley. 

Note. — The wheel or axle is a continuous or revolv- 
ing lever; the wedge a double plane, and the screw a 
revolving incline plane; levers arestraight,bent,curved, 
single, or double. 

To compute the length of a lever, the weight and 
power being given: 

Rule. — Divide the weight by the power and the 
quotient is the difference of leverage or the distance 
from the fulcrum at which the power supports the 
weight. 

Example. — A weight of IGOO lbs. is to be raised by 
a power or force of 80 lbs., recjuires the length of the 
longest arm of the lever, the shortest being one 
foot i«»o=20ft. 

To compute the weight that can be raised by a lever, 
its length, the power, and the position of its fulcrum 
Ix'ing given. 

Rule. — Multiply the power by its distance from 
the fulcrum and divide the product by the distance of 
the weiglit from the fulcrum: 

Example. — What weight can be raised by a power 
of 375 lbs. suspended from end of a lever 8 feet from 
the fulcrum the distance of the weight from the ful- 
ci-um being 2 ft. ^t-.^k 8 _ 1590. Ans. 

To compute the position of thefulcrum, the weight, 
power and the lever being given, when the fulcrum is 
between weight and tlie j^ower. 

Rule: Divide the weight by the power and add 
(1) one to the quotient and divide the length b}' the 
sum thus obtained. 



102 

Example: A weight of 2,460 lbs. is to be raisec 
with a lever of 7 ft. long and a power of 300 lbs., a 
what part of the lever must the fulcruni be placed? 

Statement: Voo* = 8.2 |1 = 9 2. Reduced tc 
inches. Solution: 7 ft. = 84 in. — 9.2 ft. = 110 in 
Answer, l\l ft. 

When the weight is between the fulcrum and th< 
power. 

Rule: Divide the length by the quotient of th< 
.weight, divided by the power, i«oo = 20 H— 20 = 1 ft 
from the fulcrum. 

To compute the length of an arm of the lever tf 
which is attached, the weight power and length of arn^ 
of the lever to which the power is api^lied being given 

Rule: Multi])ly tiie power by the lensrth of the arni 
to which it is applied and divide the product by the 
weight. 

Example: A weight of 1,600 suspended from the 
fulcrum of a lever, is supported by a ])ower of 80 lbs; 
applied at the other end of the arm, 20 ft. in length 
what is the length of the arm? 

Solution: "^s'^jti" = 1 ft. Answer. 

To compute tlie ])ower required to r:iise a giver 
weight, the length of the lever and the positiou of th« 
fulcrum being given. 

Rule. — Multiply the weight to be raised by its dis 
tance from the fulcrum and (livide the ])roduct by tht 
distance of the ])ower from the fulcrum. 

Example. — Th<^ length of the lever is 10 feet. th« 
weight to be raised 3,000 11)S., and its distance from the 
fulcrum is 2 ft-, what is the power required? ^?S^^| 
6 0^00=750 lbs. 

To compute the length of the arm of the lever tt 
which the power is applied, the weight, power, and dis 
tance of the fulcrum being given. 

Rule.— Multiply the weight by its distance fron^ 
the fulcrum and divide the product by the i)ovver. 

Epample. — A weight of 400 lbs. suspended li 
inches from the fulcrum, is supported l)y a power o: 
50 lbs. applied at the other end, what is the length o 
the arm? ^^-^^ >* ^--^ = 120 in. 

General Rule. — The power and distance from i\v 
fulcrum is equal to the weight and disUmce from th( 
fulcrum. 



103 
NOTES ON IRON AND STEEL. 

1. The tfverage weight of wrought iron is 480 lbs. 
per cubic foot. A bar 1 inch square and 3 feet long 
weighs, therefore, exactly 10 lbs. Hence: To find the 
sectional area, when the weight per foot is given; mul- 
tiply by i^y. To tind the weight per foot, when the 
sectional area is given; multiply by ^^. 

2. The weight of steel is 2 per cent over that of 
iron. 

3. The elastic limit ^o extension and compression 
of wronght iron is vei-y near loooo P®i' square inch for 
one ton load of 2240 lbs. 

4. Cast iron weighs 450 lbs. 

5. Wrought iron, the purest hammered, 489 !I)S. 

6. Soft forged iron expands about at 100^ Fahr, 
.0007. 

7. Cast iron expands about at 100« Fahr. .0006. 

8. Wire " '' " " .0008. 
The nudting point of iron and steel is about as fol- 

hnvs: Wrought iron, 3,000<* Fahrenheit; cast iron, 
2.0000 Fahrenheit; steel, 2,400^ Fahr.; the welding heat, 
2,7500 Fahr. 



MENSURA TiON. 

PRACTICAL RULES. 



A surface has two dimensions; length and 
breadth. 

A solid has three dimensions, length, 
breadth and thickness. 

The area of a surface is the number of units 
of surface which it contains, the unit of surface 
being a square which has a linear unit for each 
of its dimensions. 

The volume of a solid is the number of units 
of volume which it contains, the unit of volume 
being a cube which has a hnear unit for each 
of its three dimensions. 

A Circle is a plane figure bounded by a 



104 

curved line called the circumference all points oi 
whiah are equally distant from a point within 
called the center. 

A part of the circumference is called an Arc. 

A line drawn through the center and termi- 
nated by the sircumference is called the "diam- 
eter," and half the diameter is called the radius 

RULES. 

Circumference of a Circle squals diameter 
multiplied by 3.1416. 

Diameter of Circle equals circumference 
multiplied by 0.3183. 

Side of Square of equal periphery as circle 
equals diameter multiplied by 0.7854. 

Diameter of Circle of equal periphery as 
square equals side multiplied by 1.'2732. 

To find surface or area. — Area of a Circle 
equals square of radius multiplied by 3.1416. 

Area of a Sphere equals circumference mul- 
tiplied by diameter or square of diameter multi- 
plied by 3,1416. 

Area of a Cone equals circumference of base 
multiplied by the slant height or side of cone, 
halve the product and add it to the area ot the 
base. 

Area of a Triangle equals base multiplied by 
half perpendicular height. 

Area of a Cylinder equals circumference 
multiplied by height by area of both ends. 

To find the volume of solids. Volume of a 
sphere equals cube of diameter multiplied by 
0.5236. 

Volume of a Cone equals area of base mul- 
tiplied by perpendicular height and take one- 
third of the product. 



106 

Volume of a Cylinder equals area of end 
multipled by length. 

Volume of a Prism, right or oblique, equals 
area of base multiplied by perpendicular height. 

PRISMOIDAL FORMULA. 

A Prismoid is a solid bounded by by six 
plane surfaces, onl}^ two of which are parallel. 

To find the contents of a prismoid, add to- 
gether the areas of the two parallel surfaces and 
four times the area of a section taken midway 
between and parallel to them, and multiply the 
sum by h of the perpendicular distance between 
the parallel surfaces. 

The volume of an irregular body is found by 
immersing the body in a vessel full of water, re- 
move the body and calculate the amount of water 
displaced. 



106 



TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS 



Sths, 16ths, 32nds and 64-thsof an Inch, for Usef 
in Connection with Micrometer Calipers. 



Sths. 


32nds. 




64th s 


i eciuals .135 


3^ equals .21875 


H 


equals .265625 


i equals .25 


3« equals .28125 


a 


equals .296875 


1 equals .375 


li equals .34375 


u 


equals .3281 2 H 


^ equals .50 


i| equals .40625 


If 


equals .35937ri 


f equals .625 


If equals .46875 


25 

a 4 


equals .390{)'jr, 


f equals .75 


i| equals .53125 


¥4 


equals .4218:,-] 


1 equals .875 


if equals ,59375 


n 


equals .4531 -.5 




11 equals .65625 


if 


equals .4843751 


16ths. 


II equals .71875 


ii 


equals .515625| 




If equals .78125 


if 


equals .5468751 
equals .558125 


jig equals .0625 


II equals .84375 


11 


1^6 equals .1875 


If equals .90625 


39 

64 


equals .609375 


,% equals .3125 


|i equals .96875 


a 


equals .640625 


/e equals .4375 




II 


equals .6718751 


ifg equals .5625 


64ths. 


45 

6 4 


equals .703125| 


H equals .6875 




¥4 


equals .7343751 


11 equals .8125 


J4 equals .015625 


i! 


equals .765625 


11 equals .9375 


6^ equals .046875 


ii 


equals .796875 t 




Q% equals .078125 


11 


equals .828125 


32nds. 


i^ equals .109375 


if 


equals .859375 




i^ equals .140625 


6 4 


equals .890625 '' 


3^2 equals .03125 


i\ equals .171875 


59 
64 


equals .921875 « 


3%- equals .09375 


ii equals .203125 


t\ 


equals .953125 j 


g\ equals .15625 


i| equals .234375 


if 


equals .98437c , 


INCHES EXPF 


tESSED IN DECIMAL 


. OF A FOOT. 


Inches. 


Decimals. 


Inches. 


Decimals. ' 


1 




.083 


7 




.583 , 
.667 * 


2 




.166 


8 




3 




.250 


8 




.750 


4 




.333 


10 




.833 i 


5 




.416 


11 




.916 i 


6 




.500 


12 




1.000 . 



lOT 



ANGLE IRON RING. 



Much has been written on the correct method 
of ascertaining the length of a bar to make an 
angle-iron ring of a given diameter, and if you 
were to examine all the books that profess to 
give information on the subject you would find 
that none of them agree on this point; but each 
of them contains a rule quite different from the 
other. Many who have not had much experi- 
ence in this class of work may be puzzled to ac- 
count for this, as all those books agree upon one 
rule for finding the length of a bar of either flat, 
square or round iron to make a ring of any size 
or given diameter. The reason of this is, no one 
can lay down a correct rule that would apply to 
all sizes of angle ironings. 

If you were requested to make a ring 2 feet 
in diameter flange outside; size of iron 3x3^ 
and you found the length of the bar it would 
take to make it by any given rule, which when 
bent it came to the exact size; and you also 
received instruction to make another ring 6 feet 
in diameter of the same iron, and you ascertained 
the length of the bar to make the ring by the 
same rule as you did the small one, you would 
find when this was bent that the bar in this case 
was too short to make the ring; "this, I am cer- 
tain, would be the case," although the same rule 
was adopted in both instances; and the reason of 
this is not far to seek. 

If you measured the outside flange of the 
small ring, you would find that by bending the 
iron it had narrowed to about 2^ inches, and if 
you were to measure the outside flange of the 



108 

large ring you would find it was nearly the same 
width as the bar was before it was bent. 

By this you will see at once that the iron ir 
the large ring had not stretched to the same ex-> 
tent as the iron composing the small ring, be- 
cause it is nearer a straight line. The mode oj 
bending is also sure to alter the length. If care 
be taken in getting the bar to a uniform heat ir 
the furnace and then bend it around a block oi) 
pins to the diameter required, you will find that 
it will take a longer bar to make the same sized 
ring than it would if you heated the bar at a, 
smith's fire in lengths of about a foot at a time,; 
as the iron stretches very much more by the last 
process. 

The only correct method of finding the 
length of a bar to an angle iron ring of a given 
diameter is to strike out the full size of the ring 
on a piece of plate or slab and draw a line across 
its center; then to find the length of the bai 
sufficient to make the ring, refer to tables of cir- 
cumference, or multiply the diameter in inches 
by 3.1416. Supposing the diameter of the ring 
to be 3 feet, size of iron 3x3x^, reduce the di- 
ameter to inches and multiply thus: 36 in. x3. 1416 
= 113.0976; to this add twice the width of thet 
bar, namely, six inches, making a total of 9 feet 
and llfo inches; take the bar and cut it that 
length and mark it with a center punch exactly 
in the middle; when this is done scarf the end of 
the bar and bend one-half of it according to the 
circle previously struck out, and by placing the 
end on the line that bisects the circle, you will 
find or see on the opposite side how near the 
center punch mark comes to the line, if it is over 
the line toward the straight end of the bar it is a 



109 

proof that the bar is too long and you must cut 
double the length what it is over the center 
punch mark off of the straight end before bend- 
ing the other end or other half of the ring. 

If the center punch mark does not come to 
the line then you have cut the bar double that 
much too short. But this cannot be if you have 
cut the bar according to the length above named. 

If you want to make an angle-iron ring with 
the flanges inside, get the length of the bar the 
same as before mentioned, but instead of adding 
twice the width of the bar deduct once the width 
of the bar from the length and proceed as be- 
fore. 

It does not require as long a bar of iron to 
make a T iron ring as it does an angle-iron ring, 
the diameter and thickness being equal, as the 
former stretches much more than the latter. If 
3'ou were going to make a T iron ring 3 feet in 
diameter refer to the table of circumference for 
the length and add twice the width of the rib to 
the length of the bar and then mark it in the 
center and bend one half according to the previ- 
ous instructions on the making of angle iron 
rings. 

If you are going to make any quantity of 
either T iron or J iron rings, do not cut up your 
bars of iron until you have bent the half of one, 
as it will not take you much time in doing it and 
you can then depend upon getting the correct 
length, and in the end you will be ver3^much the 
gainer in time and your employer in material. 

The table of rules given you in many books 
for finding the lengths of T and angle iron 
rings is only misleading and is not in any case to 
be depended upon. 



ALLOYS AND 


110 

COMPOSITIONS. j 


The Followiug is a List of various Matals 


for Various Purposes: 


METALS. 


c 


V 

N 




"3 


J 


>3 

< 


B 


■ c 
1 


Babit Metal. . 


37 

84.3 

75 

92.2 

88.8 

90 

10 

67 

8fi 
8 7 

62.2 

92 

91.4 
65 1 

80 

72 

87.5 

33.3 

49.5 
81.6 

77 
80 
87.5 

77.4 


24 

5.2 
25 

ii'.2 

80 ' 
33 


21 
10.5 












Brass, Com'n. 


























Math. In still's 


7 8 












Red Tainbac. . 












Wheel Valves 
White 


10 
10 

25' 






.... 


... 




Wire 


( 












Brita'nia Met. 






25 
25 






when fused ad ) 
Rronze Red .... 






25 




31.2 

19.3 
5.6 

33.4 
24 


2 9 

1.6 

10 

8' 
4.1 

i6"i 

26.5 
12.5 

i8'.4 

23 

20 

12.5 

15.6 






Yellow., 
(xun Metal . . . 












Me(hils 

Statuary .^ 

Chinese Silver*. 


.... 




.... 






13 










Church Bells... 
Clock 


4.3 






1 .5 


Cocks, Mus \ 










ical Bells, j * ' 
Ger. Silver 


33 3 

24 








'' " fine 








2 5 


Gongs 








House Bells. . . . 












Lathe Bushes. . . 












Mach. Bear'gs. . 
" hard 






















Metals that ) 
expand in ^ 
cooling — ) 

Pewter, best.. 

Printing char. 

Sheet'g Metal 






75 


16.7 

14 
20 


8.3 










86 






80 








56 


44 


.... 


.... 



Ill 

ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS 

(CONTINUED ) 



METALS. 


o 
O 

00 
50 
00.6 

7-4 


c 
a 

N 

2i" 


22 

21) 
38.4 


o 




o 
2 


s 


p 


Speculum M. . . . 


















Telescopic Mir' r 
White Metal 












l' 4 


28.4 
4.4 






50.8 






"hard.. 


69.825.8 
73 12 H 






Oreide* 



























*Silver in Chinese Silver, 2.48; Cobolt of Iron in Chinese 
Silver, 12; Arsenic in Speculum M., 12; Magnesia, 4.4 ; Cream 
of Tartar, 6.5; Salimoniac, 2.5; Quick Lime, L3. 

ALLOYS AND COMPOSITION FOR SOLDER- 
ING VARIOUS METALS. 



METALS 


53 

6 




H 






3 
< 


S 


I2 




6 







< 


1 




Tin 






25 
58 
33 
07 

38 

50 

06 
40 


. . 


75 
10 
07 
33 

07 

25 

34 
20 


i 


10 

■• 
[[ 

25 
40 


82 


"7 

07 




•• 




89 

•• 
•• 




(< 








Melts 500" coarse 




• 




" 300*^ ordinary.. 
Spelter, s<if t 


50 


50 




" hard 


07 33 




Lead 




Steel 

Brass or Copper 

Fine Brass 


13 
50 

47 


5 

50 

47 




Pewterers or Soft 




Gold .... 


4 
00 


84 




" hard 

" soft 




Silver hard 


20 


•• 


'^1 


Pewter 




Iron 

Copper 


'' 


33 





112 
TEMPERING. 

Tempering Springs. — Fit the springs before 
tempering; heat them in a furnace to a cherry 
red and dip them edgeways into a vessel filled 
with oil; when cooled place the spring over alow 
fire and leave the remaining oil burn off and cool 
again in oil. When tempered at a very low heati 
it is not necessary to let the oil burn ofi. 

Tempering Lathe Tools. — Heat to a cherry 
red and cool in water; draw temper to a straw 
color. Lathe tools will stand pretty hard while 
they are worked at a steady strain. 

If lathe tools are made of a good quality of 
steel they will stand best when tempered in hot 
water without drawing temper. 

Tempering Drills and Chisels. — Heat as 
usual and cool in pure water, draw temper to a 
dark blue. 

Tempering Cutlery. — Heat to a cherry red 
(care should be taken not to over heat), and cool 
in luke warm water; apply tallow or oil and leave 
it burn off on a low fire; take the hammer handle 
and scrape across the edge. It is the right tem- 
per when the shavings cafch fire; cool off at once. 
Cutlery is also tempered in oil; leave the oil burn 
off the same as before. It also stands edge at a 
sky-blue color. 

ROCK DRILLS. 

To Temper Steam Drills.- — When done dress- 
ing them leave them cool off before heating them 
for temper or else they may get hot too far up, 
which would cause the wings to break. 

Build a kind of hollow fire and place the drill 
in front of it so that the flame of the fire touch 
the drill at the very end and keep turning the drill 
and watch the corners, as steam drills are very 



113 

sensitive and may crack while cooling. Heat to 
a cherry red. The heat should not show upon the 
drill any further than three-quarters of an inch, 
and cool in a lotion of water and salt — one peck 
of salt to fifty gallons of water. Draw no 
temper. 

Hand Drills. — Hand rock drills are not so 
sensitive as steam drills are. They should be 
sharpened and tempered in one heat. Heat to 
the usual heat, shove them into the salt lotion 
and leave them there until cold; no temper to be 
drawn. 

A good many tool dressers may be puzzled 
why water which has been in use for a while for 
tempering does not temper as hard as freshwater 
does. It is caused by burning the oxigen out of 
the water, and it must be replaced by filling up 
as the lotion evaporates. 

To Temper very small Tools and Springs. — 
Heat at a very low heat, cool by waving the tool 
or spring in the air, and it will have just the right 
temper. 

Tempering Stone Cutters Tools. — Stonecut- 
ter tools should be tempered at a low cherry 
heat, as they are very thin and cool quick. Draw 
temper to a light pigeon blue color. To draw 
temper on tooth chisel have a sponge on a stick 
and cool the teeth as the temper comes down. 
When all the teeth have even blue color then 
cool. Use nothing but pure water. 

Tempering a Brick Hammer. — Heat to a 
cherry red, cool and draw temper to a brown 
straw color; draw temper on a brick set the same 
as on a brick hammer. 

Tempering a Bush Hammer. — Heat to a 
cherry red and cool off in pure cold water; draw 



114 

temper, leave the center teeth a brown purple; 
as the temper approaches towards the outside 
teeth leave them get a little softer until the out- 
side row becomes of a dark blue color, then 
cool. This is the most difficult stone cutter tool 
to temper. Both ends must be tempered in the 
same heat. Use the sponge for cooling and 
guiding the temper. 

Tempering Limestone Points and Tooth 
Axes. — Heat as usual, draw temper between 
dark and pigeon blue. 

Tempering Punches. — Heat to a cherry red 
and cool in water; rub the surface bright with 
fine emery paper; draw the temper above the fire 
to a purple, getting near to dark blue color; the 
lower end should be a little softer. 

Shears are tempered with the same heat, 
dipped into water edgeways and temper drawn 
between two hot pieces of iron to the same colon 
as the punch. 

Tempering Axes. — Heat the pole of the ax 
first, then turn and heat the other end and leave 
the heat approach towards the edge to last, watch 
the edge carefully and not overheat it; cool in a 
mild solution of salt water; rub it bright with a 
rub stone; draw temper to a pigeon blue by plac- 
ing the ax virtically on the fire with the pole 
downward and leave the temper come up towards 
the edge. 

Tempering Circular Saws. — Heat the saw 
to a cherry red, cool in an oil bath; draw temperi 
between two heated plates to a blue color. Cir- 
cular saws for cutting iron and rail are tempered 
the same way, but no temper drawn. In most: 
cases the temper is just right. 



! 



115 

A very good bath for saws is an equal quan- 
tity of oil, beeswax and rosin. 

In tempering cross cuts and hand saws the 
cooling medium is oil, but for the convenience of 
keeping the blade straight they are cooled be- 
tween two smooth plates of iron. 

SOLUTION FOR TEMPERING. 

I.— Saltpeter, 1 oz. 

Alum, pulverized, 2 tea spoonfuls. 
Salt, . 1 tea cup. 

Soft water, 2 gallons. 

Draw no temper. 

II. — Water, 7i gallons. 

Saltpeter, 5 ounces. 

Sal. Ammoniac, 5 '' 

Draw no temper. 



III. 


—Water, 


2 gallons. 




Saltpeter, 


2 oz. 




Alum, 


2 oz. 




Sal. Ammoniac, pul , 


1 oz. 




Salt, 


H lbs. 


IV. 


-Water, 


2 gallons. 




Saltpeter, 


I oz. 




Borax, pulverized. 


i oz. 




S.il. Ammoniac, pul. 


i oz. 




White Vitriol, 


1 oz. 




Salt, 


n pts. 



V. — Put 1^ oz. of corrosive sublimate in 3 quarts of 
soft water and add one handfull of common 
salt; dissolve and it is ready for use. This gives 
toughness and hardness. (Beware, this is 
poison.) 



. — Alum, 


1 oz. 


Saltpeter, 


1 oz. 


Sal. Ammoniac, 


1 oz. 


Salt, 


f lb. 


Water, 


H gall 



Draw no temper 



116 



MILL PICKS. 




-Water, 


H gall. 


Ammonia, 


H oz. 


White Vitrol, 


H oz. 


Sal. Ammoniac, 


H oz. 


Alum, 


U oz. 


Salt, 


3 oz. 



VII. 



and one handful of horse hoof parings. 

VIII. — A drill tempered in a solution of chloride of 
zinc will drill glass. 

TEST COLOR FOR TEMPERING. 

Says Mr. J. Richards: — Procure eight pieces 
of cast steel about two inches long by one inch 
wide and ^s thick, heat them to a high red heat 
and drop them into a salt bath; leave one with- 
out tempering to show the white shade of ex- 
treme hardness, and grind off and polish one 
side of each of the remaining seven pieces; then 
give them to an experienced tool dresser to be 
drawn to seven various shades of temper vary- 
ing from the white piece to the dark blue color 
of soft steel. On the back of these pieces paste 
labels describing the technical name of the shades 
and the g;eneral uses to which tools of corre- 
sponding hardness are adapted. This will form 
an interesting collection of specimens, and ac- 
sustom the eye to the various tints which will, 
after some experience, be instantly recognized 
when seen separately. 

To Soften Steel. 

One tablespoonful each hydrochloric acid 
and saltpetre to one gal. of water. Heat the 
steel and cool in it; then heat again and let 
get cool. 

Cast steel thus treated will weld with sand. 



117 
Composition to Toughen Steel. 

Resin 2 lbs., tallow 2 lbs., black pitch 1 lb.; 
melt together and^put in the steel when hot. 

To Restore Burnt Steel. 

Four lbs. of fine white sand pulverized, add 
^ lb. of resin, ^ lb. of sal. ammoniac, }( lb. 
copperas, all pulverized; mix well. When the 
steel is hot sprinkle and let cool. This process 
will restore any burnt steel. 

To Restore Burnt Steel. 



Sal Ammoniac, 


1 lb. 


Borax, 


3 lb. 


Prussiate of Potash, 


y2 lb. 


Rosin, 


2 oz. 



Pulverize, add 2 gills each of water and alco- 
hol. Boil to a stiff paste in an iron kettle; the 
butnt steel is dipped while hot in the composi- 
tion and hammered slightly. 



To Restore Burn 


t Steel. 


Borax, 


4y2 oz. 


Sal. Ammoniac, 


12 oz. 


Prussiate of Potash, 


4y2 oz. 


Blue clay. 


3 oz. 


Resin, 


^ lb. 


Water, 


y pint. 


Alcohol, 


X pint. 


Simmer over the fire till 


it dries to a powder. 


eat the steel, dip in the powder and hammer. 



Polishing Powder for Steel and Metals. 
-Carbonate magnesia, 5 lbs. 

Calcium Carbonate, 5 lbs. 

Ferric oxide, 8^ lbs. 

Mix thoroughly. 



118 

II. — Carbonate magnesia, 5 lbs. 

Elutriated colcothar, 6 oz. 7 drm. 

III. — A very useful polishing powder for metals 
and glass is made of very finely ground 
glass mixed with a small proportion of 
dried soda ash. 

To Make Iron Jake a Bright Polish Like Steel. 

Blue vitriol, 1% oz. 

Borax, 1^ oz. 

Prussiate of Potash, lj4 oz. 

Charcoal, 1}4 oz. 

Salt, % pt. 

Pulverize and dissolve in 1}4 qt. of water; 
heat and cool the iron in this solution. 

To Give Iron a Brilliant Luster. 

Pulverized arsenious acid, ly^ drm. 

Elutriated bloodstone, 7^ oz. 

Antimony trechloride, 3% oz. 

Pour over these materials 5 pints of alcohol, 90 
% digest, at a gentle heat, shaking frequently. 
When iron is polished with this fluid it precipi- 
tates upon it a thin film of antimony and arsenic 
which protects the iron from oxidation and also 
gives it a fine appearance. 

Water Annealing. 

First heat the steel to a red heat, let it lie 
until nearly black hot, then throw into soap suds. 
Steel treated in this way will be softer than puti 
into ashes. 

To Improve Poor Iron. 

Dissolve in soft water one and one-half parts 
of black oxide of manganese, six parts copperas, 



119 

six parts of common salt; boil until dry, cool and 
pulverize and mix with nice welding sand; heat 
the iron and roll in this mixture; work for a time 
and reheat. This treatment will soon free the 
iron from all impurities. Good horse nail can 
be made of poor iron by this process. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



Welding Flux. 

For Welding Steel. — Sal ammoniac, 1 part; 
borax, 10 parts; pound together and fuse until 
clear, and when cool reduce to powder. 

Tempering Lotion. 

To 2 gals, of rain water take 1 oz. of cor- 
rosive sublimate, 1 oz. sal ammoniac, 1 oz. salt 
petre, 1^ pints rock salt. 

This compound of a Lotion makes the steel 
almost as hard as a man wants it for any use. 
It has been used for tempering mill picks and 
proved very successful. 

Another. — 125 parts of water by weight, 5 
parts sulphuric acid, 13 parts salt, 1 part yellow 
prussiate of potash. ( Recommended by Sparks 
of Cresent Anvil.) 

Another.— Make a dough of 1 part of wheat 
flour and 2 parts of common salt; put it into a 
box and leave it dry; reduce it to a powder; 
when the steel is hot immerse it into the com- 
pound and heat it again until it has the right 
heat for tempering, and cool as usually. 

Black Varnish. — Linseed oil varnish 10 
parts, powdered umber 2 parts, asphalt powder 
2 parts. 

Brilliant Black for Metals. — A brilliant 
black is produced on iron and steel by applying 
with a fine hair brush, a mixture of turpentine 



[ 

' and sulphur boiled together. When the tupen- 
tine evaporates there remains on the metal a thin 
layer of sulphur, which unites closely with the 
iron when heated for a few moments over a 
spirit or gas flame. This varnish protects the 
metals perfectly and is quite durable. 

Blueing of Gunbarrels. — Scour the steel 
with a small quantity of a strong aqueous solu- 
tion of soda, rinse in water, warm and brush 
o.ver with a solution oi a. }^ oz. of chloride of iron 
dissolved in 5 oz. of water, and let it dry; then 
apply in the same manner a solution of one-iifth 
of of an ounce of pyrogallic acid in one ounce of 
water; dry and brush. Does not wear well with- 
out lacquering. 

Malleable or Aluminum Bronze. — By weight 
.10 aluminum, .90 copper. This composition 
may be forged either cold or hot. It becomes 
extremely dense; its tensile strength is 100,000 
lbs., when drawn into wire 128,000 and its elas- 
ticity one-half that of wrought iron. Specific 
gravity 7.7. 

Specific Gravit3\ — The specific gravity of 
any substance is the number found by dividing 
the weight of substance by the weight of an 
equal bulk of water. Therefore, the specific 
gravity of a substance is the number that ex- 
presses the weight of a cubic foot of it in pounds. 

Weight of water 62.5 lbs. Weight of iron 
480 lbs. ' 

Example — 62.5 ™480 = 7.6 gravity of iron. 

Fresh water weighs 62,37925 per cubic foot. 

Note. — But for facility of computation it is 
reckoned 62.5 or 1000 ounces; Sea water weighs 
per cubic foot 64.3125. 

Annealing Mushet Steel. — Heat the steel to 



122 

a forging heat, and then put it into a pile of saw- 
dust and keep it well covered; leave it there until 
cold. It will be soft enough to work it like any 
other cast steel. When done, heat it and leave 
it cool off in the usual way. 

To Soften Cast Iron. — A pickle of one quart 
of aqua-fortis and four quarts of water. Immerse 
the casting and leave it twenty-fours in the solu- 
tion, when you will find it soft enough to 
work it. 

To Remove Rust on Wrought Iron. — Take 
one pint of muriatic acid to one quart of water; 
immerse twenty-four hours. Clean the article: 
with a hot solution of soda of all the grease and 
oil before immersing. The rust will come off 
like dirt. — Am. Machinist. 

One hundred and thirty-eight bushels char- 
coal and 430 lbs. of limestone with 2,612 lbs of 
ore will produce about one ton of pig iron. 

Painting of Iron. — The iron should be thor- 
oughly cleaned of all rust before applying the 
paint. 

For painting, use one part of verdigris, one 
part of white lead and three parts of linseed oil; 
or Yz of verdigris, l}4 oi white lead and 2^ of 
linseed oil. The iron to receive three coats; the 
first before it is used, the second after the first is 
thoroughly dry, and the third three days later. 

Lacquer for Iron. — A lacquer protecting the 
iron from rust and presenting a beautiful black 
appearance is composed of asphalt, pine oil and 
colophoney. 

Tempering Twist Drills and Reamers. - 
Pack the drills and reamers into an iron sand 
box and heat slowly cherry red in a furnace or 
forge fire; dip them vertically into water; brighten 



123 

the surface and heat the tools evenly till an or- 
ange brown color appears on the bright surface. 

Acid to Mark Hardened Tools. — Pyrolig- 
neous acid four parts, alcohol one part by meas- 
ure; mix and add one part double aquafortis. 



124 



Rate of Wages from $4 to $21 per Week. 





$4.00 


1 
$4.50 


$5.00 


15.50 


DAYS. 






5 




Q 


1 i 


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1. 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 
2 
2 
2 
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8 
3 
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4 
5 
6 
6 
7 
8 

12 
16 
17 


16i 

33i 

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831 

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8 
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18 
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37i 
561 

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12i 

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481 

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181 

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75 

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15 

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451 

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41* 
83i 
25 


10 

11 

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16* 
081 
00 


18 


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24 

26 


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83i 



125 



Rate of Wages from $4 to $21 per Month. 



$6.00 




$7.00 



1 
1 
1 
2 

2 
2 
2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

14 

21 

28 

30 



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$8.00 



3 

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6 



7 

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12 

13 

14 

16 

24 

32 

34 



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$9.00 



126 



Rate of Wages from $4 to $21 per Week. 



i 
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f 
1 

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2 

3 

3i 
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3f 

4 

4i 

4i 

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18 
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26 



$10.00 



1 
1 

2 
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4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

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6 

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20 
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50 
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50 
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50 
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50 
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50 
00 
50 
00 
50 
00 
50 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
00 
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12' 



Rate of Wages from $4 to $21 per Week. 



DAYS. 



$14.00 


en 




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128 



Rate of Wag-es from $4 to $21 per Week. 



DAYS. 



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129 



Rate of Board by the Week. 



Time. 


Rate. 


Rate. 


Rate. 


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Rate. 




cc 












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$2.25 


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57 




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71 




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130 



Rate of Board by the Week. 



Time. 


Rate. 


Rate. 


Rate. 


Rate. 


Rate, 


02 




$4.00 


$4.50 


$5.00 


$5.50 


$6.00 


^ 


Q 














1 




57 




64 




71 




79 




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14 


29 


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12 


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15 


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57 


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13 


14 


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18 


07 


19 


71 


3 


3 


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71 


15 


43 


17 


14 


18 


86 


20 


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29 


16 


07 


17 


86 


19 


64 


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3 


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14 


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16 


71 


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57 


20 


43 


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29 


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6 


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INDEX. 

Page. 

Acid to Mark Hardened Steel 123 

Alloys and Compositions 110-111 

Angle Iron Rings, how to bend , .107-109 

Annealing of Steel 12 

" by Water 118 

Annealing Mushet Steel 121 

Axes, how to temper , 114 

Bar Iron, table of all sizes manufactured 47- 52 

Bath for Tempering Circuhir Saws 115 

Bessemer Steel, process of making 28- 29 

Black Paint for Metals 120 

Brick Hammer, to temper ... 113 

" Set " " 113 

Bolts, Heads, Nuts and Heads in Proportion. 92 

Bush Hammer, to temper 113 

Cast Iron, manufacture and quality 1- 2 

" weight of 103 

" Balls, weight of 84 

" Expands 103 

Case Hardening , . . 11 

Condensed Suggestions for Steel Workers ... 12 

Crushing Strength of Iron 100 

Cuts of Tools and Welds 24-46 

Dies and Tools 39-46 

Die Block, how to obtain 41 

Drills, to temper 112 

" Steam for Rock 112 

" Hand for Rock 113 

" Twist, to temper 122 

" Steam, to temper 112 

•' Hand 113 



132 

Elastic Limit of Iron 1 03 

Explanation of Tables on Tensile Strength, . . 97 

*' " of wghtsq. and rd. Iron 97 

" " Circumference .... 97 

Area 98 

Flat Rolled Iron.... 98 

Figures, of Welds 34- 39 

Forges and Fires 29- 32 

Fulcrum and Lever Explained 101-102 

Furnace, sketches of 24- 25 

" what fuel to use 26 

Fluxes for Welding Steel 18-120 

Gun Barrels, blueing of 121 

Heating of Iron. 33 

Heating to Forge Steel 14 

Iron, manufacture of 1 

" the process of making 1-11 

" Cast 1- 2 

" " to soften 122 

' ' Wrought 5 

" Piling of 7 

" Balling of 7 

" Tensile Strength of 99-100 

" Crushing Strength of 100 

" to Take a Bright Polish 118 

Give a Brilliant Lustre 118 

" Improve 118 

Lacquer for Iron 122 

Lathe Tools, tempering of 112 

Lever. Fulcrum, and Power 101-103 

Lime Stone Tools, to temper 114 

Lotions for Tempering 115-117-120 

Malleable or Aluminum Bronze 121 

Manganese, what it is 29 

Melting Paint off Iron and Steel 103 

Mill pick, to temper 117 



133 

Mensuration 108-105 

Miscellaneous 120-124 

Nails, table of 93- 94 

Notes on Iron and Steel 103 

On Heating 17 

Painting of Iron 122 

Piling of Iron 7 

Polishing Powder for Steel and Metals 117 

Polish for Steel and Iron 118 

Practical Rules 103 

Prismoidal Formula 105 

Pudling Furnace 6 

Pudle Roller 6 

Punches, to temper 114 

Refining Steel 5 

Roller Finishing 7 

Rules to Find Area of Circle 104 

" Cone 104 

Cylinder 104 

" " Iron 104 

Sphere 104 

Triangle 104 

" Circumference 104 

" " Diameter 104 

" " Weight of Iron 103 

*' Volume of Cone 104 

Cylinder 105 

Prism 105 

Prismoid 105 

" " " Sphere 104 

" " " an Irregular Body. . 105 

Rust, to remove 122 

Saws, how to temper 114 

" bath, for tempering 115 

Shears, how to temper 114 

Specific Grayity 121 



134 

Spikes, table of 93-95 

Sprinajs, how to temper 112 

Stonecutter Tools, how to temper 113 

Swedges, cuts of 40 

" how to be made 41 

Steel, acts when heated irregular . . 16- 18 

" blistered 8 

'* Burned, how to restore 116-117 

" Cast 9 

" crushing strain 101 

" damask 10 

" Figures 1 and 2 show cracks 16 

" fluxes for welding 18-120 

" Indian : 8 

" manufacture of 8 

" Natural 8 

" on heating to forge 14 

" Shear 9 

*' tensile strength 100 

" tempering and hardening 10 

" tilted 9 

* • to test grain 27 

" to soften 116 

'* to toughen 116 

" various or alloys 10 

" weight 103 

Tables of Areas, Circumference of Circle.. 65- 81 

" of Areas of Flat Rolled Iron 59- 64 

*' Bearing Value of Pins 82 

" Breaking Strain of Chain 83 

" Degrees for Tempering 11 

Flat Rolled Metals 83 

Rate of Board 129-130 

Rate of Wages 124-128 

Sizes and Weight of Square Nuts 90 

" " " Hexagon Nuts. . . 91 



135 

Table of Sheet Steel Measurement 87 

'* Substances 8(5 

*' Spikes, Nails and Tacks 93-94 

" Tensile Strength 99-100 

" Upset Screw Ends 88-89 

♦' " Cast Iron Balls 84 

Flat Rolled Iron 53-58 

" Weight of Square and Round Iron 47- 52 

'* " Wrought Iron Steam, Gas and 

Water Pipes 96 

" Weight of Wrought Spikes 95 

" " Various Metals 85 

Tempering Axes 114 

Brick Hammer 113 

Brick Set 113 

" Bush Hammer 113 

Cutlery 113 

Drills and Chisels 112 

Lathe Tools 112 

Limestone Tools 114 

Lotion 120 

Punches 114 

Rock Steam Drills 112 

Rock Hand Drills 113 

" Saws, circular 114 

" " " for iron and rail 114 

" Saws, hand, cross cut 115 

Shears 114 

" Small Stools and Springs 113 

Solution 115-117 

" Springs 112 

Stone Cutter Tools 113 

Tooth Axes ' 114 

Temper of Steel 19- 23 

Test Colors for Tempering 116 

Toughen Steel 116 



136 

Upset Screw Ends 88- 89 

Varnish for Iron 130 

Welding Fluxes 120 

Welds 34-39 

Welding and Working of Iron 35 

Weight of Iron. 103 

" of Steel 103 

of Cast Iron 103 

Wire Expands 103 

Wrought Iron (soft forged) Expands 103 



S50 



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